Ap Psychology Exam Review

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Hindsight bias

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humans tend to be overconfident - the I-Knew-It-All-Along phenomena

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Critical thinking

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thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions

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theory

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an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

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hypothesis

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a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

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operational definition

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a statement of the procedures used to define research variables.

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replication

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repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

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case study

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an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

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survey

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a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them.

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false consensus effect

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the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors

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population

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all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study.

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random sample

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a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

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naturalistic observation

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observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

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correlation

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a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

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scatterplot

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a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represent the values of two variables

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illusory correlation

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the perception of a relationship where none exists

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experiment

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a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process

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double-blind procedure

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an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo

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placebo effect

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experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on the behavior caused by the administation of an inert substance or condition, which is assumed to be an active-agent.

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experimental condition

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the condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable

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control condition

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the condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental conditions and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

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random assignment

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assigning participants to experiment and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different group

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independent variable

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the experimental factor that is manipulated

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dependent variable

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the outcome factor

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mode

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the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

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mean

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the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

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median

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the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

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range

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the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

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standard deviation

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a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

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statistical significance

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a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

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culture

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the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

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phrenology

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an ill fated theory that claimed bumps on the skull could reveal our mental abilities and our character traits

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biological psychology

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a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior

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neurons

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interconnected cells that form the body's information system

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biopsychosocial systems

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a person. In order to understand human behavior you must study biology, psychology, and social-culture.

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dendrite

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the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

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axon

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the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands

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myelin sheath

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a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fiber of many neurons

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action potential

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a brief electrical charge that travels down the axon

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excitatory

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signals that make the neurons move faster

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inhibitory

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signals that slow the neurons down

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threshold

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the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

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synapse

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the junction betweeen the axon tip and the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

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neurotransmitters

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chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps between neurons

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Acetylcholine (ACh)

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a neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction

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endorphins

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morphine within - natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

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agonist excite

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an agonist molecule may be similar enough to the neurotransmitter to mimic its effects

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antagonists inhibit

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an antagonist can be a drug molecule that inhibits an neurotransmitter's release

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blood-brain barrier

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enables the brain to fence out unwanted chemicals circulating in the blood

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nervous system

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the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

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central nervous system

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the brain and spinal cord

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peripheral nervous system (PNS)

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links the central nervous system with the body's sense receptors, muscles, and glands

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nerves

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neural cables containing many axons. These bundled axons, which are part of the peripheral nervous system, connect the central nervous system with muslces, glands and sense organs

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sensory neurons

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neurons that carry incoming information from the sense receptors the the central nervous system

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motor neurons

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neurons that carry outgoing information from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands

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interneurons

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central nervous system neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

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somatic nervous system (skeletal nervous system)

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enables voluntary control of our skeletal muscles

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automatic nervous system

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controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs

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sympathetic nervous system

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the division of the autonomicc nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

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parasympathetic nervous system

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the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

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reflex

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a simple, autonomic, inborn response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response

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neural network

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interconnected neural cells

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endocrine

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the body's slow chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

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hormones

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chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine glands, that are produced in one tissue and affect another

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adrenal glands

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a pair of endocrine glands just above the kidney which secret the hormone epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (nonadrenaline) that help to arouse the body in times of stress

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pituitary glands

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the endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands

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lesion

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tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue.

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Electroencephalogram (EEG)

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an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain’s surface. Electrodes placed on the scalp measure these waves.

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PET (positron emission tomography) scan

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a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.

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MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

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a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain

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fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging)

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a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans.

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Brainstem

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the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull

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Medulla

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the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

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Reticular formation

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a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal

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Thalamus

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the brain’s sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmit replies to the cerebellum and medulla

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Cerebellum

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the “little brain” attached to the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance.

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Limbic system

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borders the brain’s older parts and the cerebral hemispheres.

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Amygdala

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two lima bean-sized neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion.

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Hypothalamus

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a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities, helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion.

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reward deficiency syndrome

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a genetically disposed deficiency in the natural brain systems for pleasure and well-being that leads people to crave whatever provides that missing pleasure or relieves negative feelings.

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Cerebral cortex

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the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; the body’s ultimate control and information processing center

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Glial cells

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cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protects neurons.

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Frontal lobes

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the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments

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Parietal lobes

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the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and towards the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position

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Occipital lobes

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the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes the visual areas, which receive visual information from the opposite visual field

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Temporal lobes

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the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each of which receives auditory information primarily from the opposite ear.

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Motor cortex

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an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

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Sensory cortex

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the area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

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Association areas

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areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking and speaking.

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Aphasia

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the impaired use of language usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area or to Wernicke’s area.

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Broca’s area

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control language expression – an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movement involved in speech

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Wernicke’s area

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controls language reception – a brain area involved in language comprehensions and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

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Plasticity

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the brain’s capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development

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Corpus callosum

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the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

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Split brain

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a condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the connecting fibers (mainly the corpus callosum) between them.

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Behavior genetics

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studies the relative effects of our genes and our environment on our individual differences in behavior and mental processes

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Evolutionary psychology

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which studies behaviors, emotions, and thinking capacities that seemingly allowed our distant ancestors to survive, reproduce, and send their genes into the future.

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Environment

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every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us.

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Genes

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the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; a segment of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein.

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Chromosomes

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threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contains genes

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DNA

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a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes

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Genome

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the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic materials in the organism’s chromosomes

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Identical twins

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twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating to genetically identical organisms

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Fraternal twins

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twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment

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Temperament

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a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

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Heritability

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the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes.

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Interaction

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the effect of one factor depends on another factor

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Molecular genetics

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the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes

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Evolutionary psychology

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the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

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Natural selection

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the principle that, among the range of inherited traits variations, those that lead to increased reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

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Mutations

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a random error in gene replication that leads to a change
An evolutionary explanation of human sexuality

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Gender

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in psychology the biologically and socially influenced characteristics by which people define male and female

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Culture

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is the behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

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Personal space

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the buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies

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Individualism

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giving priority to one’s own goals over group goals and defining one’s identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications

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Collectivism

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giving priority to the goals of one’s group and defining one’s identity accordingly

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Aggression

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physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone

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Testosterone

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the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sec characteristics during puberty

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Role

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a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

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Gender role

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a set of expected behaviors for males and for females

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Gender identity

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one’s sense of being male or female

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Gender-typing

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the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role

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Social learning theory

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the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

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Gender schema theory

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the theory that children learn from their cultures a concept of what it means to be male and female and that they adjust their behavior accordingly

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Developmental psychology

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a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive and social change throughout the life span

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Zygote

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the fertilized egg

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Embryo

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the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month

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Fetus

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the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth

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Teratogens

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agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

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Fetal alcohol syndrome

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physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman’s heavy drinking.

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Rooting reflex

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a baby’s tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple.

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Habituation

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decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation

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Maturation

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biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

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Schema

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a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

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Assimilation

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interpreting one’s new experience in terms of one’s existing schemas

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Accommodation

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adapting one’s current understandings to incorporate new information

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Cognition

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all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering and communicating

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Sensorimotor stage

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in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years old) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

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Object permanence

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the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

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Preoperational stage

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in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from 2 -6 or 7 years) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operation of concrete logic

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Conservation

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the principle that properties such as mass, volume, and the number remain the same despite changes in the form of objects

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Egocentrism

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in Piaget’s theory, the preoperational child’s difficulty taking another’s point of view

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Theory of mind

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people’s ideas about their own and others’ mental states – about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts and the behavior these might predict

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Autism

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a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by deficient communication, social interaction and understanding of others’ states of mind

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Concrete operational state

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in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 to 11 years) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

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Formal operational stage

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in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning at 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

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Stranger anxiety

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the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

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Attachment

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an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and show distress on separation

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Adolescence

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the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

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Puberty

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the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

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Primary sex characteristics

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the body structures that make sexual reproduction possible

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Secondary sex characteristics

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nonreproductive sexual characteristic, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality and body hair.

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Menarche

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the first menstrual period

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Preconventional morality

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obey to avoid punishment or gain rewards

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Conventional morality

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obey because they are the law or rules

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Postconventional morality

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obey only what they believe is right based on ethical principles

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Identity

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one’s sense of self

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Intimacy

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in Erikson’s theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood

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Menopause

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the time of natural cessation of menstruation

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Alzheimer’s disease

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a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and finally, physical functioning

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Cross-sectional studies

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a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another

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Longitudinal study

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research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period

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Social clock

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the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement

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Sensation

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the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

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Perception

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the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

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Bottom-up processing

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analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information

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Top-down processing

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information processing guided by high-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectation.