Ap Psychology Ch.1 Thinking Critically With Psychology Myers Textbook

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Hindsight Bias

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The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.)

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Critical Thinking

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Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

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Theory

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An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviours or events.

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Hypothesis

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A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

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Operational Definition

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A statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.

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Replication

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Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.

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Case Study

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An observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

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Survey

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A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviours of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them.

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False Consensus Effect

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The tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviours.

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Population

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All the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study. (Note: Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country's whole population.)

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Random Sample

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A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

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Naturalistic Observation

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Observing and recording behaviour in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

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Correlation

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A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. The correlation coefficient is the mathematical expression of the relationship, ranging from -1 to +1.

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Scatterplot

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A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation). (Also called a scattergram or scatter diagram.)

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Illusory Correlation

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The perception of a relationship where none exists.

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Experiment

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A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factor (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behaviour or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.

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Double-Blind Procedure

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An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

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Placebo Effect

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Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behaviour caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which is assumed to be an active agent.

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Experimental Condition

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The condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment, that is, to one version, of the independent variable.

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Control Condition

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The condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

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Random Assignment

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Assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing pre-existing differences between those assigned to the different groups.

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Independent Variable

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The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied. (I-Control)

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Dependent Variable

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The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.
(Depends on the independent variable)

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Mode

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The most frequent occurring score(s) in a distribution.

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Mean

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The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.

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Median

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The middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it.

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Range

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The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

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Standard Deviation

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A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

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Statistical Significance

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A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.

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Culture

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The enduring behaviours, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

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Aristotle

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philosopher thought that heart was the control center or mental process; started the nature vs. nurture debate; (monist) mind and body are one; derived principle solely from observations; knowledge is not pre-existing

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Socrates

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Believed mind and body were separate (dualist); mind existed after death; some innate ideas at birth

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Plato

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Thought the brain was control center of mental process; mind and body separate entities (dualist); mind exists after death

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Rene Descartes

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Proposed mind-body interaction and the doctrine of innate ideas; published "A Discourse on Method"

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Dualism

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The belief that mind and body are two distinct natures (mind= mental, body=physical)

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Monism

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Mind and body are connected

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John Locke

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monist; rejected the idea of innate ideas in newborns

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Tabula Rasa

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mental content of newborns is a blank slate that is written upon by experience

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Empiricism

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knowledge's origin is in experience and science and the acquisition of knowledge; knowledge should rely on observation and scientific experience

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Wilhelm Wundt

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campaigned to make psychology an independent discipline; established the 1st lab for study of psych; "father of psych"

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Edward Tichener

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introduced structuralism; aimed to discover the elements of the minds

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Structuralism

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used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind; led by Tichener

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Introspection

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careful system of observations of one’s own conscious experiences; required self-reflection and looking inward

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Functionalism

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how mental and behavioral processes functioning enable an organism to adapt to survive and flourish; William James led the school of thought; gave way to applied psychology and behaviorism

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William James

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coined phrase “stream of consciousness” to describe how the mind experiences perception; leader of functionalism

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Mary Calkins

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1st woman elected to membership in the APA (American Psychological Association)

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Psychology

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the science of behavior and mental processes

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Behavior

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anything an organism does; any action that we can observe and see

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Mental Processes

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internal subjective experiences we infer from behavior

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Sigmund Freud

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father of psychoanalysis; believed in free association and dream analysis to help people uncover what lies hidden in their unconscious

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Unconscious

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contains thoughts, memories, and desires that are well below the surface of conscious awareness but that nonetheless exert great influence on behavior

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Thomas Hobbes

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viewed that the soul/mind/spirit was a meaningless byproduct of physical and chemical phenomenon

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Charles Darwin

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believed in Natural Selection in which traits that were better suited for an environment would be passed down from parent to offspring

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Nature-Nurture Debate

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the debate about whether human traits develop through experience or if people are born with them

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Natural Selection

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idea that nature selects traits that best enable an organism to survive and reproduce in an environment

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Behaviorism

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founder is John Watson; redefined psychology as the science of observable behavior; rejected introspection; the study of consciousness was abandoned with this view

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John Watson

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behaviorist; believed behavior came from nurture, not nature; focused on stimulus-response relationships (stimulus meaning any detectable input from the environment)

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B.F. Skinner

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behaviorist; created the idea of operant conditioning

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Biological Perspective

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physiological and chemical processes of the body and brain enable emotion, memories, and sensory experiences

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Behavioral Perspective

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observable situations create responses that use emotions, memories, and sensory experiences; B.F. Skinner and Watson

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Cognitive Perspective

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the encoding, processing, storing, and retrieval of information influence what we experience

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Humanistic Perspective

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the approach that focuses on the impact of self-awareness and free will in our experiences; took an optimistic stance on human behavior; stressed humans‘ freedom and potential for growth; Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow

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Psychoanalytic Perspective

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approach that believes behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts; Sigmund Freud

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Sociocultural Perspective

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approach that emphasizes how various cultures and social groups can differ in thinking and behavior

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Evolutionary Perspective

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approach that centers around the idea that natural selection of traits promotes the perpetuation of one’s genes

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Behavior Genetics Perspective

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approach that maintains that genes and our environment influence our individual differences

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Basic Research

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research that builds psychology’s knowledge base

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Applied Research

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research that aims to solve practical problems using psychological principles

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Clinical Psychology

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aims to study, assess, and treat troubled people

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Psychiatry

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medical doctors licensed to prescribe drugs to treat physical causes of psychological disorders

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Ecleticism

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the use of two or more psychological approaches