Ap Psych: Prologue And Chapter 1

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Structuralism (Edward Titchener)

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The first formal school of psychology. Focuses on analyzing the basic elements or structure of conscious mental experience through the use of introspection (technique used by structuralism). No longer a perspective applied.

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Functionalism (William James)

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The first American school of psychology. Concerned with the study of mental processes and their role in facilitating adaptation to the environment. Broadened the scope of psychology to include the study of behavior as well as mental processes, and the study of children, the mentally impaired, and animals. No longer a perspective applied.

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Psychoanalysis/psychodynamic (Sigmund Freud)

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Emphasizes the roles of unconscious mental forces, conflicts, childhood experiences, sex, and aggression (driving forces in the unconscious mind) in determining behavior.

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Behaviorism (John Watson & B.F. Skinner)

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Views observable, measurable behavior rather than internal mental processes as the appropriate subject matter of psychology. Stresses the key roles of learning and the environment in determining behavior.

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Humanistic (Abraham Maslow & Carl Rogers)

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Focuses on the uniqueness of human beings and their capacity for choice, growth, and psychological health. Called the third force in psychology (behaviorism and psychoanalysis being the other 2 forces). [Believe everybody is the inevitably good].

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Cognitive (Piaget & Chomsky)

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Focuses on mental processes such as memory, problem solving, reasoning, and decision making, language, and perception. Uses information-processing approach.

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Biological

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Emphasizes the studying of the physical bases of human and animal behavior, including the nervous system, endocrine system, immune system, and genetics. (Behavior genetics).

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Gestalt psychology (M.W., K.K. & W.K.)

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Emphasizes that individuals perceive objects and patterns as whole units. The perceived whole is greater than the sum of its parts and is not best understood by analysis of its elemental parts (as suggested by the Structuralists).

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Operational definition

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A statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables.

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Independent variable

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The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

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Dependent variable

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The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

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Confounding/extraneous variable

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A condition that would sabotage the experiment.

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Control group

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The group with the condition that contrasts with that experimental condition and serves as a comparison.

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Experimental group

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The group with the condition that exposes participants to the treatment.

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Confederate

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A fake planted into the experiment.

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Double-blind procedure

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An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are blind.

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Random assignment

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Assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance.

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Sample

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Participants in the experiment.

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Random sample

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A sample that fairly reps a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

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Representative sample

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The population is divided into strata and a random sample is taken from each stratum.

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Placebo

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Experimental results caused by expectations alone.

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Generalization

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Taking something specific and applying it more broadly.

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Naturalistic observation (Jane Goodall)

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Observation and recording of behavior in its natural setting. Subjects may or may not know they are being observed.

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Naturalistic observation (Jane Goodall)

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Provides descriptive information. Can provide basis for hypotheses to be tested later. Behavior studied in everyday setting is more natural.

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Naturalistic observation (Jane Goodall)

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Researchers' expectations can distort observations (observation bias). Presence of researcher may influence behavior of subjects. Hawthorn Effect. Little or no control over conditions.

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Laboratory observation

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Observation under more controlled conditions where sophisticated equipment can be used to measure responses.

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Laboratory observation

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Research method advantage: More control than naturalistic observation.

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Laboratory observation

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Possible observer bias. Behavior of subjects may be less natural than in naturalistic observation. Hawthorne Effect.

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Case study (Baby Joey)

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In-depth study of one or a few subjects using observation, interview, and/or psychological testing.

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Case study (Baby Joey)

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Source of information for rare or unusual conditions or events. Can provide basis for hypotheses to be tested later.

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Case study (Baby Joey)

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May not be representative of condition or event. Time-consuming. Subject to misinterpretation by researcher.

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Survey (Kinsey)

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Interviews and/or questionnaires used to gather information about attitudes, beliefs, experiences, or behaviors of a group of people.

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Survey (Kinsey)

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Can provide accurate information about large numbers of people.

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Survey (Kinsey)

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Responses may be inaccurate. Sample may not be representative. Characteristics of interviewer may influence responses.

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Experimental method

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Random assignment of subjects to groups. Manipulation of the independent variable(s) and measurement of its effect on the dependent variable.

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Experimental method

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Enables identification of cause-effect relationships.

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Experimental method

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Laboratory setting may inhibit natural behavior of subjects. Findings may not be generalizable to the real world. IN some cases, experiment is unethical.

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Correlational method

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Method used to determine the relationship (correlation) between 2 events, characteristics, or behaviors.

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Correlational method

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Can assess strength of relationship between variables. Provides basis for prediction.

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Correlational method

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Does not demonstrate cause and effect. "Correlation does not prove causation."

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Psychological tests

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Tests used for measuring intelligence, scholastic achievement, aptitudes, vocational interests, personality traits, psychiatric problems.

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Psychological tests

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Provide data for educational and vocational decision making, personnel selection, research, and psychological assessment.

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Psychological tests

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Tests may not be reliable or valid.

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Aristotle (320 BC)

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Greek philosopher, empiricist (knowledge gained from experience and environment).

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Darwin (1860)

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British biologist.

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Descartes (1600)

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French philosopher, nativist, and dualist.

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Helmholz (1830)

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German physiologist.

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Locke (1700)

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British philosopher, empiricist.

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Plato (360 BC)

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Greek philospher, nativist (born a certain way)

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Calkins (1895)

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First woman president of APA.

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Ebbinghaus (1888)

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Studied memory.

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Freud (1900)

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First psychotherapy.

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Hall (1882)

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First lab in USA.

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James (1890)

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First comprehensive textbook.

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Titchener (1885)

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Used introspection.

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Wundt (1879)

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First psychology laboratory.

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Chomsky (1960)

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Studied language.

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Maslow (1955)

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Humanist approach.

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Pavlov (1905)

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Discovered conditioning.

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Piaget (1950)

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Studied children's intelligence.

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Rogers (1970)

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Humanistic therapy.

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Skinner (1940)

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Studied reinforcement.

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Thorndike (1910)

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Studied learning in cats.

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Washburn (1915)

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First woman PhD.

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Watson (1920)

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Founded behaviorism.

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Neuroscience biological

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Psychologists who study how the body and brain enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences are working from the ____ perspective.

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Evolutionary

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Psychologists who study how natural selection influences behavior tendencies are working from the ____ perspective.

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Genetics

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Psychologists who study the relative influence of genes and individual differences are working from the ____ perspective.

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Psychodynamic/psychoanalytical

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Psychologists who believe that behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts are working from the ____ perspective.

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Behavioral

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Psychologists who study the mechanisms by which observable responses are acquired and changed are working from the _____ perspective.

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Cognitive

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The _____ perspective explores how our mind encodes, process, store, and retrieve information.

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Social-cultural

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Psychologists who study how thinking and behavior vary in different situations are working from the ____ perspective.

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Neuroscience

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Perhaps Dennis Rodman has a high level of estrogen that makes him feel as though he should wear women's clothes.

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Evolutionary

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Dennis Rodman's tall height and athleticism are traits that are naturally selected for; however, his cross-dressing tendencies are counterintuitive to him passing on his own genes. His ancestors were most likely tall and athletic as well.

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Behavior genetics

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We should examine Dennis's genetic background to see whether his behaviors come from his family or are a product of his NBA environment.

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Psychodynamic

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Dennis was traumatized as a child when he was not permitted to have a Halloween costume. He has repressed the memory but, as a result, dresses in outrageous clothing to try and overcompensate for his loss as a child.

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Behavioral

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Dennis Rodman's father and grandfather both were cross dressers and frequently dyed their hair. Dennis observed this throughout is life and is now imitating the same behavior.

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Cognitive

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Dennis Rodman interprets his role in the NBA as needing to create attention for his team. As a result, he thinks that by cross-dressing, dying his hair, and tattooing his body, his team will get the positive attention it requires.

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Social-cultural

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Perhaps in the NBA culture, these behaviors occur often and are widely accepted; thus, Dennis Rodman believes his behavior to be typical and not out of the ordinary.