Ap Models Flashcards For Ap Human Geography

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Core-Periphery Model

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A model that describes how economic, political, and/or cultural power is spatially distributed between dominant core regions, and more marginal or dependent semi-peripheral and peripheral regions.

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Peters Projection

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A cylindrical map projection that attempts to retain the accurate sizes of all the world's landmasses

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Mercator Projection

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These maps show true direction and land shapes fairly accurately, but not size or distance. Areas that are located far from the Equator are quite distorted on this type of map. Alaska, for example, appears much larger on this type of map than it does on a globe.

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Fuller Projection

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A type of map projection that maintains the accurate size and shape of landmasses but completely rearranges direction such that the four cardinal directions-north, south, east, and west-no longer have any meaning

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Goodes-Homosline Projection

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Accurately shows sizes and shapes of landmasses. Distances are not correct and oceans are divided.

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Robinson Projection

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Useful for displaying info across oceans; however, the disadvantage is that the area of land is much smaller. Uses tabular coordinates rather than mathematical formulas to make the world "look right." Better balance of size and shape of high-latitude lands than in Mercator, Van der Grinten, or Mollweide. Soviet Union, Canada, and Greenland truer to size, but Greenland compressed. Directions true along all parallels and along central meridian. Distances constant along Equator and other parallels, but scales vary. Scale true along 38° N & S, constant along any given parallel, same along N & S parallels same distance from. Equator. Distortion: All points have some. Very low along Equator and within 45° of center. Greatest near the poles. Not conformal, equal area, equidistant, or perspective.

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Scale

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The ratio between the size of an area on a map and he actual size of that same area on the earth's surface.

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Isoline Map

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Map line that connects points of equal or very similar values.

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Cartogram

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A type of thematic maps that transforms space such that the political unit with the greatest value for some type of data is represented by the largest relative area.

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Dot density map

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Thematic map that uses dots to represent the frequency of a variable in a given area

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Proportional symbol map

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a thematic map in which the size of a chosen symbol - such as a circle or triangle indicates the relative magnitude of some statistical value for a given geographic region

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Chloropleth map

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A thematic map that uses tones or colors to represent spatial data as average values per unit data

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Malthus Population Catastrophe

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Englishman Thomas Malthus published An Essay on the Principle of Population in 1798, his main idea was that the global population would one day expand to the point where it could not produce enough food to feed everyone. He predicted this would happen before 1900. The Malthusian catastrophe did not happen by 1900 or even by today, but some more recent thinkers (neo-Malthusians) think it still could in the future. made sense, he lived during a time when the UK was shifting from stage 2 to stage 3, seeing rapid migration to the cities and a population explosion, food grew linearly, while the human population grew exponentially, but new technology soon boosted food production (internal combustion engine, artificial fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation pumps, etc). A Malthusian catastrophe (also phrased Malthusian check, Malthusian crisis, Malthusian disaster, or Malthusian nightmare) was originally foreseen to be a forced return to subsistence-level conditions once population growth had outpaced agricultural production. Later formulations consider economic growth limits as well. The term is also commonly used in discussions of oil depletion. Based on the work of political economist Thomas Malthus (1766–1834), theories of Malthusian catastrophe are very similar to the Iron Law of Wages. The main difference is that the Malthusian theories predict what will happen over several generations or centuries, whereas the Iron Law of Wages predicts what will happen in a matter of years and decades.

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Boserup's Hypothesis of Population (anti-Malthusian)

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The hypothesis that disagreed with Malthus and stated that increasing populations motivate improved agricultural technologies. Boserup theory is known as an optimistic theory. It states that agricultural methods and productivity of food depend on the size of the population.

Indications:

1: if population increases, larger workforce so more food produced.

2: if population increases, mechanistaion occurs, more food produced as more effective means found of producing high yields of food through use of machinery.

3: if population increases, increased use of fertilisers results, so as to produce more food for the growing population.
Boserup hypothesis emphasizes the role of rising population density as a mediator between population growth and the environment. According to the theory, as population density increases, there is an increased need for food, an increased labor supply, more idea generators, and reduced interaction costs. These forces lead to additional inputs of labor into current farming and land improvement activities, which increases the frequency of cultivation. According to the theory, agriculture intensification resulting from additional land, labor inputs, and intensification technologies increases total output allowing crop production to keep pace with the rising demand for food. As population density increases, the per capita cost of providing infrastructure decreases and access to knowledge and markets increases. The development of roads for example leads to increased internal and external trade, a source of revenue as well as information.

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Population pyramid

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a pyramid-like diagram that displays the population distributions between age and sex. A population pyramid, also called an age picture diagram, is a graphical illustration that shows the distribution of various age groups in a population (typically that of a country or region of the world), which forms the shape of a pyramid when the population is growing. It is also used in Ecology to determine the overall age distribution of a population; an indication of the reproductive capabilities and likelihood of the continuation of a species.

It typically consists of two back-to-back bar graphs, with the population plotted on the X-axis and age on the Y-axis, one showing the number of males and one showing females in a particular population in five-year age groups (also called cohorts). Males are conventionally shown on the left and females on the right, and they may be measured by raw number or as a percentage of the total population. Population pyramids are often viewed as the most effective way to graphically depict the age and sex distribution of a population, partly because of the very clear image these pyramids present. A great deal of information about the population broken down by age and sex can be read from a population pyramid, and this can shed light on the extent of development and other aspects of the population. A population pyramid also tells how many people of each age range live in the area. There tends to be more females than males in the older age groups, due to females' longer life expectancy.

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Demographic Transition Model (DTM)

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The "Demographic Transition" is a model that describes population change over time. It is based on an interpretation begun in 1929 by the American demographer Warren Thompson, of the observed changes, or transitions, in birth and death rates in industrialized societies over the past two hundred years or so.

By "model" we mean that it is an idealized, composite picture of population change in these countries. The model is a generalization that applies to these countries as a group and may not accurately describe all individual cases. Whether or not it applies to less developed societies today remains to be seen. As a country passes through the demographic transition model, the total population rises. Most LEDCs are at stage 2 or 3 (with a growing population and a high natural increase). Most MEDCs are now at stage 4 of the model and some such as Germany have entered stage 5. As populations move through the stages of the model, the gap between birth rate and death rate first widens, then narrows. In stage 1 the two rates are balanced. In stage 2 they diverge, as the death rate falls relative to the birth rate. In stage 3 they converge again, as the birth rate falls relative to the death rate. Finally in stage 4 the death and birth rates are balanced again but at a much lower level. Has 4 steps. Stage 1 is low growth (low stationary), Stage 2 is High Growth (early expanding), Stage 3 is Moderate Growth (late expanding), and Stage 4 is Low Growth (low stationary), and Stage 5 although not officially a stage is a possible stage that includes zero or negative population growth. This is important because this is the way our country and others countries around the world are transformed from a less developed country to a more developed country.

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Epidemiologic Transition Model

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essentially the same thing as the demographic transition, however it specifically denotes a human phase of development witnessed by a sudden and stark increase in population growth rates brought about by medical innovation in disease or sickness therapy and treatment, followed by a re-leveling of population growth from subsequent declines in procreation rates. In demography and medical geography, epidemiological transition is a phase of development witnessed by a sudden and stark increase in population growth rates brought about by medical innovation in disease or sickness therapy and treatment, followed by a re-leveling of population growth from subsequent declines in fertility rates. This theory was originally posited by Abdel Omran in 1971.
Omran divided the epidemiological transition of mortality into three phases, in the last of which chronic diseases replace infection as the primary cause of death.[2] These phases are:

The Age of Pestilence and Famine: Where mortality is high and fluctuating, precluding sustained population growth, with low and variable life expectancy, vacillating between 20 and 40 years.
The Age of Receding Pandemics: Where mortality progressively declines, with the rate of decline accelerating as epidemic peaks decrease in frequency. Average life expectancy increases steadily from about 30 to 50 years. Population growth is sustained and begins to be exponential.
The Age of Degenerative and Man-Made Diseases: Mortality continues to decline and eventually approaches stability at a relatively low level.

The epidemiological transition occurs as a country undergoes the process of modernization from developing nation to developed nation status. The developments of modern healthcare, and medicine like antibiotics, drastically reduces infant mortality rates and extends average life expectancy which, coupled with subsequent declines in fertility rates, reflects a transition to chronic and degenerative diseases as more important causes of death.

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Gravity Model of Spatial Interaction

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Spatial interaction or "gravity models" estimate the flow of people, material or information between locations in geographic space. Factors can include origin propulsive variables such as the number of commuters in residential areas, destination attractiveness variables such as the amount of office space in employment areas, and proximity relationships between the locations measured in terms such as driving distance or travel time.

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Ravenstein's Laws of Migration

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These were formulated by E. G. Ravenstein (1885) and state that:

1. Most migration is over a short distance.
2. Migration occurs in steps.
3. Long-range migrants usually move to urban areas.
4. Each migration produces a movement in the opposite direction (although not necessarily of the same volume).
5. Rural dwellers are more migratory than urban dwellers.
6. Within their own country females are more migratory than males, but males are more migratory over long distances.
7. Most migrants are adults.
8. Large towns grow more by migration than by natural increase.
9. Migration increases with economic development.
10. Migration is mostly due to economic causes.

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Zelinsky Model of Migration Transition

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the stage of demographic transition can predict migration

Stage 1: high daily or seasonal mobility in search of food rather then permanent migration

Stage 2: international migration becomes especially important consequence of new technology

Stage 3/4: in search of economic opportunities shift from urban to suburban

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Indo-European Language

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languages from the indo-european family. Spoken by half of the world's people, and includes, among others, the germanic, romance, and slavic subfamilies.

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I-E Language Diffusion Theories (Agriculture, Conquest)

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Conquest theory: theory of the diffusion of the Proto-Indo-European language into Europe through the speakers’ overpowering of earlier inhabitants through warfare and technology (e.g., fighting on horseback). Its hearth is around modern day Ukraine (Kurgan Hypothesis - Marija Gimbutas).

Agriculture theory: theory of the diffusion of the Proto-Indo-European language into Europe through the innovation of agriculture (being more efficient than hunting and gathering). Its hearth is around modern day Anatolia (in Turkey; Renfrew Hypothesis - Colin Renfrew).

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Domino Theory

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the political theory that if one nation comes under Communist control then neighboring nations will also come under Communist control. the idea that political destabilization in one country can lead to collapse of political stability in neighboring countries, starting a chain reaction of socialist countries of Eastern europe and Asia. When one country experiences rebellion or political disunity, other countries around it will also experience turmoil as a result, leading to a domino effect of political instability
Established in response to the communist incursions that had been occurring around the world.

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Heartland Theory

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Sir Halford John Mackinder was a British geographer who wrote a paper in 1904 called "The Geographical Pivot of History." Mackinder's paper suggested that the control of Eastern Europe was vital to control of the world. He formulated his hypothesis as: Who rules East Europe commands the Heartland Who rules the Heartland commands the World-Island Who rules the World-Island commands the world Mackinder's Heartland (also known as the Pivot Area) is the core area of Eurasia, and the World-Island is all of Eurasia (both Europe and Asia).

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Rimland Theory

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Nicholas Spykman's theory that the domination of the coastal fringes of Eurasia would provided the base for world conquest.

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Rank Size Rule

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A pattern of settlements in a country, such that the nth largest settlement is 1/n the population of the largest settlement.

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World Systems Theory (Wallerstein)

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Theory originated by Immanuel Wallerstein and illuminated by his three-tier structure, proposing that social change in the developing world in inextricably linked to the economic activities of the developed world. World-system refers to the inter-regional and transnational division of labor, which divides the world into core countries, semi-periphery countries and the periphery countries.[2] Core countries focus on higher skill, capital-intensive production, and the rest of the world focuses on low-skill, labor-intensive production and extraction of raw materials.[3] This constantly reinforces the dominance of the core countries.[3] Nonetheless, the system is dynamic, in part as a result of revolutions in transport technology, and individual states can gain or lose the core (semi-periphery, periphery) status over time.[3] For a time, some countries become the world hegemon; throughout last few centuries during which time the world system has extended geographically and intensified economically, this status has passed from the Netherlands, to the United Kingdom and most recently, to the United States.

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von Thünen's Agricultural Model

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a model designed by Von Thunen, that depending on the cost of transportation and the value of the product, different types of farming are conducted at different distances from a city. Site or human factors were not considered in this model.
-when deciding where to locate a farm, a farmer must take into consideration how much it costs to transport their product. Location of farm affects what a farmer will produce (if in rural area farmer is less likely to grow highly perishable and bulky products). The Von Thunen model of agricultural land use was created by farmer and amateur economist J.H. Von Thunen (1783-1850) in 1826 (but it wasn't translated into English until 1966). Von Thunen's model was created before industrialization and is based on the following limiting assumptions:

The city is located centrally within an "Isolated State" which is self sufficient and has no external influences.
The Isolated State is surrounded by an unoccupied wilderness.
The land of the State is completely flat and has no rivers or mountains to interrupt the terrain.
The soil quality and climate are consistent throughout the State.
Farmers in the Isolated State transport their own goods to market via oxcart, across land, directly to the central city. Therefore, there are no roads.
Farmers act to maximize profits.

In an Isolated State with the foregoing statements being true, Von Thunen hypothesized that a pattern of rings around the city would develop.

There are four rings of agricultural activity surrounding the city. Dairying and intensive farming occur in the ring closest to the city. Since vegetables, fruit, milk and other dairy products must get to market quickly, they would be produced close to the city (remember, we didn't have refrigerated oxcarts!)

Timber and firewood would be produced for fuel and building materials in the second zone. Before industrialization (and coal power), wood was a very important fuel for heating and cooking. Wood is very heavy and difficult to transport so it is located as close to the city as possible.

The third zone consists of extensive fields crops such as grains for bread. Since grains last longer than dairy products and are much lighter than fuel, reducing transport costs, they can be located further from the city.

Ranching is located in the final ring surrounding the central city. Animals can be raised far from the city because they are self-transporting. Animals can walk to the central city for sale or for butchering.

Beyond the fourth ring lies the unoccupied wilderness, which is too great a distance from the central city for any type of agricultural product.

Even though the Von Thunen model was created in a time before factories, highways, and even railroads, it is still an important model in geography. The Von Thunen model is an excellent illustration of the balance between land cost and transportation costs. As one gets closer to a city, the price of land increases. The farmers of the Isolated State balance the cost of transportation, land, and profit and produce the most cost-effective product for market. Of course, in the real world, things don't happen as they would in a model.

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Three Agricultural Revolutions

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First Agricultural Revolution- allowed humans to become more sedentary and avail themselves of a more reliable source of food. It was very labor intensive at this point, requiring many people to produce only a small amount of food. With a more stable food source, the population began to grow, more people needed more food, and growing more food required more labor in self-perpetuating cycles of population growth. Along with this plant domestication came animal domestication.

Second Agricultural Revolution- Agricultural benefited from the Industrial revolution, causing the Second Agricultural Revolution. The 2 revolutions occurred from 1700 to 1900 in developed countries. They used technology provided by the Industrial Revolution to increase production and distribution of products.
fields were now doubled or tripled in size but still the same amount of labor. This increased in productivity and allowed population to increase on both a local and a global scale. Many less developed countries are still in the Second Agricultural Revolution.

Third Agricultural Revolution / Green Revolution- This was the later half of 20th century. It corresponded with the exponential growth occurring around the world, a direct result of the second agricultural revolution and its profound effect on Europe's ability to feed itself. It included biotechnology and genetic engineering and also involves increase in chemical fertilizers and mass production of agricultural goods.

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Liberal Models of Development (self-sufficiency / international trade)

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self-sufficiency- Way to develop that focuses on a country being able to provide for its own

International Trade- The movement of goods or services between countries - - each country has different resources, so they specialize in what they can produce in a cost-effective way, then trade with other countries

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Structuralist Model of Development (dependency theory)

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States that LDCs tend to have a higher dependency ratio, the ratio of the number of people under 15 or over 64 to the number in the labor force. Dependency theory is a body of social science theories predicated on the notion that resources flow from a "periphery" of poor and underdeveloped states to a "core" of wealthy states, enriching the latter at the expense of the former. It is a central contention of dependency theory that poor states are impoverished and rich ones enriched by the way poor states are integrated into the "world system."

The theory arose as a reaction to modernization theory, an earlier theory of development which held that all societies progress through similar stages of development, that today's underdeveloped areas are thus in a similar situation to that of today's developed areas at some time in the past, and that therefore the task in helping the underdeveloped areas out of poverty is to accelerate them along this supposed common path of development, by various means such as investment, technology transfers, and closer integration into the world market. Dependency theory rejected this view, arguing that underdeveloped countries are not merely primitive versions of developed countries, but have unique features and structures of their own; and, importantly, are in the situation of being the weaker members in a world market economy. The premises of dependency theory are that:

Poor nations provide natural resources, cheap labor, a destination for obsolete technology, and markets for developed nations, without which the latter could not have the standard of living they enjoy.
Wealthy nations actively perpetuate a state of dependence by various means. This influence may be multifaceted, involving economics, media control, politics, banking and finance, education, culture, sport, and all aspects of human resource development (including recruitment and training of workers).
Wealthy nations actively counter attempts by dependent nations to resist their influences by means of economic sanctions and/or the use of military force.

Dependency theory states that the poverty of the countries in the periphery is not because they are not integrated into the world system, or not 'fully' integrated as is often argued by free market economists, but because of how they are integrated into the system. This introduces a paradoxical effect, in that although both the first and third-world countries are benefitting, the poorer side is being locked into detrimental economic position. They rely on the rich for the little work that is available to them, yet this causes a barrier from the nation growing independently. In a future perspective, such nations have no opportunity to improve their quality of life.

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New International Division of Labor

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Transfer of some types of jobs, especially those requiring low-paid, less-skilled workers, from more developed to less developed countries.

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Rostow's Stages of Growth (Modernization Model)

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Developed the "Stages of Growth" model of economic development. The Rostow's Stages of Growth model is one of the major historical models of economic growth. It was developed by W. W. Rostow in 1960. The model postulates that economic growth occurs in five basic stages, of varying length:

Traditional society
Preconditions for take-off
Take-off
Drive to maturity
Age of High mass consumption

Rostow's model is one of the more structuralist models of economic growth, particularly in comparison with the 'backwardness' model developed by Alexander Gerschenkron, although the two models are not mutually exclusive.

Rostow argued that economic take-off must initially be led by a few individual sectors. This belief echoes David Ricardo's comparative advantage thesis and criticizes Marxist revolutionaries' push for economic self-reliance in that it pushes for the 'initial' development of only one or two sectors over the development of all sectors equally. This became one of the important concepts in the theory of modernization in social evolutionism.

Traditional society
characterized by subsistence agriculture or hunting & gathering; almost wholly a "primary" sector economy
limited technology;
A static or 'rigid' society: lack of class or individual economic mobility, with stability prioritized and change seen negatively
Pre-conditions to "take-off"
external demand for raw materials initiates economic change;
development of more productive, commercial agriculture & cash crops not consumed by producers and/or largely exported
widespread and enhanced investment in changes to the physical environment to expand production (i.e. irrigation, canals, ports)
increasing spread of technology & advances in existing technologies
changing social structure, with previous social equilibrium now in flux
individual social mobility begins
development of national identity and shared economic interests
Take off
manufacturing begins to rationalize and scale increases in a few leading industries, as goods are made both for export and domestic consumption
the "secondary" (goods-producing) sector expands and ratio of secondary vs. primary sectors in the economy shifts quickly towards secondary
textiles & apparel are usually the first "take-off" industry, as happened in Great Britain's classic "Industrial Revolution"
Drive to maturity
diversification of the industrial base; multiple industries expand & new ones take root quickly
manufacturing shifts from investment-driven (capital goods) towards consumer durables & domestic consumption
rapid development of transportation infrastructure
large-scale investment in social infrastructure (schools, universities, hospitals, etc.)
Age of mass consumption
the industrial base dominates the economy; the primary sector is of greatly diminished weight in economy & society
widespread and normative consumption of high-value consumer goods (e.g. automobiles)
consumers typically (if not universally), have disposable income, beyond all basic needs, for additional goods

Rostow claimed that these stages of growth were designed to tackle a number of issues, some of which he identified himself; and wrote, "Under what impulses did traditional, agricultural societies begin the process of their modernization? When and how did regular growth become a built-in feature of each society? What forces drove the process of sustained growth along and determined its contours? What common social and political features of the growth process may be discerned at each stage? What forces have determined relations between the more developed and less developed areas; and what relation if any did the relative sequence of growth bear to outbreak of war? And finally where is compound interest taking us? Is it taking us to communism; or to the affluent suburbs , nicely rounded out with social overhead capital; to destruction; to the moon; or where? Rostow asserts that countries go through each of these stages fairly linearly, and set out a number of conditions that were likely to occur in investment, consumption and social trends at each state. Not all of the conditions were certain to occur at each stage, however, and the stages and transition periods may occur at varying lengths from country to country, and even from region to region.

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Fordism vs. Post-Fordism

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Fordism- form of mass production in which each worker is assigned one specific task to perform repeatedly.

Post-Fordism- adoption by companies of flexible work rules, such as the allocation of workers to team that perform a variety of tasks.

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Location Interdependence Theory (Hotelling)

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Theory developed by economist Harold Hotelling that suggests competitors, in trying to maximize sales, will seek to constrain each other's territory as much as possible which will therefore lead them to locate adjacent to one another in the middle of their collective customer base.

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Weber Model of Industrial Location (Least Cost Theory)

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Model developed by Alfred Weber according to which the location of manufacturing establishments is determined by the minimization three critical expenses: labor, transportation, and agglomeration.
Leaning heavily on work developed by the relatively unknown Wilhelm Launhardt, Alfred Weber formulated a least cost theory of industrial location which tries to explain and predict the locational pattern of the industry at a macro-scale. It emphasizes that firms seek a site of minimum transport and labour cost.

The point for locating an industry that minimizes costs of transportation and labor requires analysis of three factors:
Material Index

The point of optimal transportation is based on the costs of distance to the "material index" - the ratio of weights of the intermediate products (raw materials) to the finished product.

In one scenario, the weight of the final product is less than the weight of the raw material going into making the product—the weight losing industry. For example, in the copper industry, it would be very expensive to haul raw materials to the market for processing, so manufacturing occurs near the raw materials. (Besides mining, other primary activities (or extractive industries) are considered material oriented: timber mills, furniture manufacture, most agricultural activities, etc.. Often located in rural areas, these businesses may employ most of the local population. As they leave, the locale area loses its economic base.)

In the other, the final product is equally as heavy (Material Index is equal to 1) as the raw materials that require transport. Usually this is a case of some ubiquitous raw material, such as water, being incorporated into the product. This is called the weight-gaining industry. This type of industry tends to build up near market or raw material source, and are called foot-loose industry. Cotton industry is a prominent example of weight-losing raw material.

In some industries, like the heavy chemical industry, the weight of raw materials is less than the weight of the finished product. These industries always grow up near market.
Labor

The labor distortion: sources of lower cost labor may justify greater transport distances and become the primary determinant in production.

Unskilled labor
industries such as the garment industry require cheap unskilled laborers to complete activities that are not mechanized. They are often termed "ubiquitous" meaning they can be found everywhere. Its pull is due to low wages, little unionization and young employees.
Skilled labor
High tech firms, such as those located in Silicon Valley, require exceptionally skilled professionals. Skilled labor is often difficult to find and is more mobile than unskilled labor.

Agglomeration and deglomeration

Agglomeration is the phenomenon of spatial clustering, or a concentration of firms in a relatively small area. The clustering and linkages allow individual firms to enjoy both internal and external economies. Auxiliary industries, specialized machines or services used only occasionally by larger firms, tend to be located in agglomeration areas, not just to lower costs but to serve the bigger populations.

Deglomeration occurs when companies and services leave because of the diseconomies of industries’ excessive concentration. Firms who can achieve economies by increasing their scale of industrial activities benefit from agglomeration. However, after reaching an optimal size, local facilities may become over-taxed, lead to an offset of initial advantages and increase in PC. Then the force of agglomeration may eventually be replaced by other forces which promote deglomeration.

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Profit Maximization (Losch’s Zone of Maximization)

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Correct Location of a business lies where the net profit is greatest

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Bid-Rent Theory (Land Rent)

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geographical economic theory that refers to how the price and demand on real estate changes as the distance towards the Central Business District (CBD) increases. The bid rent theory is a geographical economic theory that refers to how the price and demand for real estate change as the distance from the central business district (CBD) increases. It states that different land users will compete with one another for land close to the city center. This is based upon the idea that retail establishments wish to maximize their profitability, so they are much more willing to pay more for land close to the CBD and less for land further away from this area. This theory is based upon the reasoning that the more accessible an area (i.e., the greater the concentration of customers), the more profitable. Land users all compete for the most accessible land within the CBD. The amount they are willing to pay is called "bid rent". The result is a pattern of concentric rings of land use, creating the concentric zone model.

It could be assumed that, according to this theory, the poorest houses and buildings would be on the very outskirts of the city, as this is the only location that they can afford to occupy. In modern times, however, this is rarely the case, as many people prefer to trade off the accessibility of being close to the CBD and move to the edges of a settlement, where it is possible to buy more land for the same amount of money (as the bid rent theory states). Likewise, lower-income housing trades off greater living space for increased accessibility to employment. For this reason, low-income housing in many North American cities, for example, is often found in the inner city, and high-income housing is at the edges of the settlement. Land users, whether they be retail, office, or residential, all compete for the most accessible land within the CBD. The amount they are willing to pay is called bid rent. This can generally be shown in a "bid rent curve", based on the reasoning that the most accessible land, generally in the centre, is the most expensive land.

Commerce (in particular large department stores and chain stores) is willing to pay the greatest rent in order to be located in the inner core. The inner core is very valuable for these users because it is traditionally the most accessible location for a large population. This large population is essential for department stores, which require a considerable turnover. As a result, they are willing and able to pay a very high land rent value. They maximize the potential of their site by building many stories. As one travels farther from the inner core, the amount that commerce is willing to pay declines rapidly.

Industry, however, is willing to pay to be in the outer core. There is more land available for factories, but it still has many of the benefits of the inner core, such as a marketplace and good transportation linkages.

As one goes farther out, the land becomes less attractive to industry because of the reducing transportation linkages and a decreasing marketplace. Because householders do not rely heavily on these factors and can afford the reduced costs (compared with those in the inner and outer core), they can purchase land here. The farther from the inner core, the cheaper the land. This is why inner-city areas are very densely populated (with, e.g., terraces, flats, and high rises), while suburbs and rural areas are more sparsely populated (with semi-detached and detached houses).

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Borchert’s Model of Urban Evolution

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refers to four distinct periods in the history of American urbanization. Each epoch is characterized by the impact of a particular transport technology on the creation and differential rates of growth of American cities. this model was created in the 1960s to predict and explain the growth of cities in four phases of transportaiton history. Stage 1: the "sail wagon" era of 1790-1830; stage 2, the "iron horse" era of 1830- 1870; stage 3. the "steel rail" epoch of 1870-1920; and stage 4, the current era of car and air travel that began after 1920.

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Central Place Theory (Christaller)

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(Christaller) is a geographical theory that seeks to explain the number, size and location of human settlements in an urban system. The theory was created by the German geographer Walter Christaller, who asserted that settlements simply functioned as 'central places' providing services to surrounding areas. developed in the 1930s by Walter Christaller, this model explains and predicts patterns of urban places across the map. Christaller analyzed the hexagonal, hierarchical pattern of cities, villages, towns, and hamlets arranged according to their varying degrees of centrality, determined by teh central place functions existing in urban places and the hinterlands they serve. He decided for example that the countryside in the areas he was studying would be flat, so no barriers would exist to impede people's movement across it. In addition, two assumptions were made about human behavior: 1) Christaller stated that humans will always purchase goods from the closest place that offers the good, and 2) whenever demand for a certain good is high, it will be offered in close proximity to the population. When demand drops, so too does the availability of the good.

In addition, the threshold is an important concept in Christaller's study. This is the minimum number of people needed for a central place business or activity to remain active and prosperous.

This then brings in the idea of low-order and high-order goods. Low-order goods are things that are replenished frequently such as food and other routine household items. Because these items are purchased regularly, small businesses in small towns can survive because people will buy frequently at the closer locations instead of going into the city.

High-order goods though are specialized items such as automobiles, furniture, fine jewelry, and household appliances that are bought less often. Because they require a large threshold and people do not purchase them regularly, many businesses selling these items cannot survive in areas where the population is small. Therefore, they often locate in large cities that can serve a large population in the surrounding hinterland. Though Losch's central place theory looks at the ideal environment for the consumer, both his and Christaller's ideas are essential to studying the location of retail in urban areas today. Often, small hamlets in rural areas do act as the central place for various small settlements because they are where people travel to buy their everyday goods. However, when they need to buy higher value goods such as cars and computers, they have to travel into the larger town or city -- which serves not only their small settlement but those around them as well. This model is shown all over the world, from rural areas of England to the United States' Midwest or Alaska with the many small communities that are served by larger towns, cities, and regional capitals.

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Concentric Circle (Burgess)

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(Burgess) Based on human ecology theories done by Burgess and applied on Chicago, it was the first to give the explanation of distribution of social groups within urban areas. This concentric ring model depicts urban land use in concentric rings: the Central Business District (or CBD) was in the middle of the model, and the city expanded in rings with different land uses. It is effectively an urban version of Von Thunen's regional land use model developed a century earlier. It contrasts with Homer Hoyt's sector model and the multiple nuclei model.

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Sector Model (Hoyt)

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is a model of urban land use proposed in 1939 by economist Homer Hoyt. It is a modification of the concentric zone model of city development. The benefits of the application of this model include the fact it allows for an outward progression of growth.

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Peripheral Model

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Definition: A model of North American urban areas consisting of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential and business areas tied together by a beltway or ring road.
Example: Peripheral
Application: Very Important because Peripheral Model affects urban areas.

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Multiple-Nuclei Model

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an ecological model put forth by Chauncy Harris and Edward Ullman in the 1945 article "The Nature of Cities." The model describes the layout of a city. It notes that while a city may have started with a central business district, similar industries with common land-use and financial requirements are established near each other. These groupings influence their immediate neighborhood. Hotels and restaurants spring up around airports, for example. The number and kinds of nuclei mark a city's growth.

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Urban Realms Model

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Describes automobile-dependent metropolitan areas· Large, self-sufficient suburban sectors · 4 criteria shape the extent, character, & internal structure of each urban realm:(1) terrain (topography, water)(2) size of metropolis(3) amount of economic activity in each realm(4) internal accessibility of each realm based on its dominant economic core

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Latin American Cities Model

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Combines elements of Latin American Culture and globalization by combining radial sectors and concentric zones. Includes a thriving CBD with a commercial spine. The quality of houses decreases as one moves outward away from the CBD, and the areas of worse housing occurs in the Disamenity sectors.

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SE Asian Cities Model

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McGee model. Developed by T.G McGee. The focal point of the city is the colonial port zone combined with the large commercial district that surrounds it. McGee found no formal CBD but found seperate clusters of elements of the CBD surrounding the port zone: the government zone, the Western commercial zone, the alien commercial zone, and the mixed land-use zone with misc. economic activities.

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African Cities Model

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Africa has the world's lowest levels of urbanization yet the most fastest growing cities. African cities have a high range of diversity so formulating a model is difficult.

Often three CBDs: a remnant of the colonial CBD, an informal and sometimes periodic market zone, and a transitional business center where commerce is conducted from curbside, stalls, or storefronts. Vertical development occurse in the colonial CBD, the traditional business center consists of one-story buildings, and the mark zone tends to be informal, yet still important.

The neighborhoods are ethnic and mixed, often next to a mining and manufacturing zone. All of that is then ringed around by a zone characterized by squatter settlements and informal satellite townships.