A&p Ii Exam 4

Front 1

ADH

From --> To --> Effect --> Why?

Back 1

From hypothalamus, anterior pituitary

To DCT/collecting system

Effect: Up water retention, up BP/plasma vol

Why? Dehydration, BP/Blood volume low

Front 2

Aldosterone

From --> To --> Effect --> Why?

Back 2

From adrenal cortex

To DCT/collecting system

Effect: Up Na+ reabsorb, lower K+ concentration

Why? Na+ low, K+ high, need water

Front 3

Renin-angiotensin

From --> To --> Effect --> Why?

Back 3

From JGC cells

To hypothalamus, renal cortex, thirst center

Effect: Up ADH/aldosterone, constrict arterioles, up BP, up water/Na+ retention, up bl. vol

Why? osmotic concentration pee too low, GFR/BP too low, sympathetic stimulation

Front 4

ANP/BNP

From --> To --> Effect --> Why?

Back 4

From atria/ventricles

To DCT/collecting system

Effect: Block ADH/aldosterone, up GFR by constricting efferent/dilating afferent, lower Na+ reabsorption, pee more

Why? BP or blood volume too high

Front 5

EPO
From --> To --> Effect --> Why?

Back 5

From JGC

To RBM

Effect: Stim RBS production

Why? Low O2 to kidneys, low BP

Front 6

PTH

From --> To --> Effect --> Why?

Back 6

From parathyroid

To bones, kidneys

Effect: Up Ca2+ reabsorption by kidneys, mobilize Ca2+ from bone, stims calcitrol production by kidneys

Why: Ca2+ levels in blood low

Front 7

Calcitrol

From --> To --> Effect --> Why?

Back 7

From kidneys

To intestines, bone, kidneys

Effect: Up Ca2+ & Phos absorbed by gut, stim bone reabsorption, stim Ca2+ reclamation by kidneys, lower PTH production

Why? Response to PTH, low Ca2+ levels in blood

Front 8

Calcitonin

From --> To --> Effect --> Why?

Back 8

From C cells of thyroid

To bone & kidneys

Effect: Inhibit osteoclasts, lower Ca2+ release from bone, up Ca2+ excretion by kidneys

Why? Elevated blood Ca2+

Front 9

Glycolysis

Back 9

Total Gain: 2 net ATP, 2 NADH, 2 pyruvate

1. Phosphorylate glucose, both ends (cost 2 ATP)

2. Split into two 3-C chains, rearrange

3. Add another phos to each end makes 2 NADH

4. Split off one phos from each to make 2 ATP

5. Rearrange molecules, makes 2 H2O

6. Split last phos off each to make 2 ATP

Front 10

Transition

Back 10

Total Gain: 2 Acetyl CoA, 2 NADH, 2 CO2

1. Pyruvic acid + enzyme

2. CoA strips off CO2 (decarboxylation) = A-CoA

3. NAD pulls off H = NADH

Front 11

TCA

Back 11

Total Gain: 4 CO2, 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, 2 ATP

1. A-CoA + oxaloacetic acid = citric acid

2. NAD pulls off H & CO2 = NADH

3. NAD+CoA+H2O = 4-C, NADH, CO2 = GDP (ATP)

4. FAD pulls off 2 H = FADH2

5. Add H2O to change shape

6. NAD pulls off H = NADH and oxaloacetic acid

Front 12

ETC

Back 12

Total Gain: 12 H2O, 32 ATP

1. starter molecule striped of 2H

2. NADH & FADH2 deliver H to CoQ

3. CoQ passes H atoms to cytochromes

4. Electrons passed (b, c, a, a3), pump H+ out

5. O2 accepts electron at end, forms H2O

6. 6H+ reenter @ ATPsynthase, create 3 ATP

Front 13

Gluconeogenesis

Back 13

Synthesis of glucose from noncarb precursors

(lactate, glycerol, amino acids)

Cannot use fatty acids/many amino acids

Front 14

Glycogenesis

Back 14

formation of glycogen from glucose

Front 15

Glycogenolysis

Back 15

breakdown of glycogen, fast

Front 16

Beta-oxidation

Back 16

Fatty acid --> 2-C acetic acid, FAD/NAD --> FADH2/NADH. Acetic acid -- Acetyl CoA --> TCA

Front 17

lipogenesis

Back 17

synthesis of lipids, dihydroxyacetone --> glycerol.

Can use almost anything to go from A-CoA -> lipid

Front 18

essential fatty acids

Back 18

Cannot be synthed, need from diet.

Linoleic acid and linolenic acid from plants

Front 19

Free fatty acids (FFAs)

Back 19

can diffuse easily across plasma membrane. bind to albumin in blood. diffuse out of intestinal epithelium or from lipid reserves when trigl. broken down.

Front 20

Lipid metabolism

Back 20

A lot more ATP, one 18-C fatty acid = 144 ATP

Cannot mobilize quickly

Front 21

Protein/amino acid catabolism

Back 21

Need Vit B6 (pyridoxine) to remove amino group.

1. Harder to break than complex lipids/carbs

2. Toxic byproduct ammonium

3. Important for making things/homeostasis

Front 22

Urea Cycle

Back 22

Two NH4 ammonium ions + CO2 = Urea
Excreted in urine.

Front 23

Renal blood vessels

Back 23

Renal artery --> segmental --> Interlobar -->Arcuate --> Interlobular --> Afferent --> Glomerulus --> Efferent --> Peritubular capillaries --> venules -->Interlobular vein --> Arcuate --> Interlobar --> Renal vein

Front 24

Renal corpuscle

Back 24

Where filtrate produced.

Glomerulus - knot of capillaries, filtration membrane of fenestrated cap, dense layer, filtration slits

Bowman's capsule - surrounds glom., collects filtrate & guides down tubule system

Front 25

PCT

Back 25

Cuboidal cells w/microvilli for surface area diffusion. Majority of reabsorption happens here (99% nutrients, 60-70% water 60-70% Na+ & Cl-)

Front 26

Nephron loop, descending

Back 26

Reabsorb water, concentrates tubular fluid.

Permeable to water, but not solutes.

Front 27

Nephron loop, ascending

Back 27

Active ion reabsorption, maintain osmotic gradient.

Not permeable to water.

Front 28

DCT

Back 28

Reabsorb water per ADH, secrete wastes, selective reabsorption of Na+ and Ca2+

Front 29

Collection ducts

Back 29

Water reabsorption per hormonal control, finalize concentration of urine.

Front 30

Juxtaglomerular apparatus

Back 30

Cells btwn afferent, efferent, glomerulus & DCT, produce:

Reinin - enzyme converts angio due to decrease in GFR

EPO - stim production RBCs due to low O2

Front 31

Passive reabsorption

Back 31

Osmosis (water follows salt), facilitated diffusion (Na+ leak channels), cotransport (Na+ & glucose), countertransport (Na+ out of tube fluid, H+ in)

Front 32

Active reabsorption

Back 32

Exchange pumps, require ATP (3 Na+ out of tube fluid 2 K+ in)

Front 33

Carrier-mediated reabsorption

Back 33

Specific solutes bind to specific carriers, one direction, can be saturated

Front 34

Renal Function

Back 34

1. Filtrate made @ corpuscle ~300 mOsm/L

2. PCT absorbs 99% nutrients, 60-70% water/Na+ & Cl-.

3. PCT/descending limb water absorbed (not permeable to solutes), concentrate tube fluid

4. Thick ascending not permeable to water/solute. Active pump of Na+ & Cl-.

5. DCT active counter transport Na/K, secretion of drugs, etc.

6. DCT/collecting system adjustment per ADH/aldosterone

7. Vasa recta absorb solutes & water around loop/collecting duct to maintain gradient

Front 35

Normal Urine

Back 35

pH 6.0 (4.5-8), specific gravity 1.003 - 1.030, osmotic concentration 855-1335 mOsm/L, water 93-97%, volume 700-2000 mL/day, clear yellow, sterile, variable odor

Front 36

Micturition Reflex

Back 36

1. Stretch receptors stim

2. Afferent sensory fibers in pelvic nerves --> sacral spinal cord

3. Increased lvl activity stim parasymp motor neurons in pelvic nerves

4. Postgang neurons in intramural ganglia stim detrusor contractions

5. Interneurons tell brain you have to pee.

Front 37

Fluid balance

Back 37

Gain from digestive = loss to urine, feces, sweat

All response systems monitor ECF (plasma)

Water does not move actively, follows salt

Front 38

Fluid Balance Hormones

Back 38

ADH - Affects water loss @ DCT/collection ducts, stims thirst response

Aldosterone - Controls Na+ (indirectly K+) @ DCT/collection ducts

ANP/BNP - Blocks ADH/aldosterone, get rid of water

Front 39

Strong acids

Back 39

Complete dissociation & liberation of H+ in water

Front 40

Weak acids

Back 40

Low dissociation & liberation of H+. Most stays in acid form.

Front 41

acidosis

Back 41

pH below 7.35

Front 42

alkalosis

Back 42

pH above 7.45

Front 43

volatile acids

Back 43

acids can leave solution & enter atmosphere

Front 44

fixed acids

Back 44

do not leave solution until filtered out

Front 45

organic acids

Back 45

byproducts of metabolism

Front 46

Protein Buffer system

Back 46

Fast acting, but limited response.

Proteins in cells/plasma can bind H+ on ends/carboxyl group can dissociate to provide H+.

Hb can take up CO2/H+ to quickly buffer blood.

Front 47

Carbonic Acid Buffer system

Back 47

Strongest, most powerful, uses lungs.

Lungs <=> CO2 + H2O <=>H2CO3 <=> H+ + HCO3 <=> ||Na+ + HCO3 <=> NaHCO3 (bicarb reserve)||

Front 48

Phosphate Buffer system

Back 48

Important for buffering ICF & urine.

H+ combines with HPO42 to form H2PO4.

Na2HPO4 in cell reserve can provide HPO4 also.

H2PO4 <=> H+ + PO42 and 2Na+ + HPO42 <=> Na2HPO4

Front 49

Respiratory acidosis

Back 49

Inability to remove CO2 created. Lower pH, up PCO2. Mainly carbonic-acid buffer system.

RR up, kidneys secrete H+, other buffers take H+, bicarb reserve mobilizes.

Front 50

Respiratory alkalosis

Back 50

Hyperventilation gets rid of CO2. Up pH, lowers PCO2.

RR down, kidneys secrete HCO3, other buffers release H+, bicarb goes back in reserve.

Front 51

Metabolic acidosis

Back 51

Lactic acidosis (not enough O2) or keto acidosis (diabetes/starvation. Up H+, lowers pH.

Severe diarrhea can cause HCO3 loss, lower pH. If kidneys can't excrete H+ (diuretics, glomerulonephritis). Na+ needs reabsorbed to excrete H+.

Front 52

Metabolic alkalosis

Back 52

Rare, but very deadly. Alkaline tide from secretion of HCl in stomach, severe vomiting.

RR down, urine HCO3 up. Control vomiting, possibly administer ammonium cholride NH4Cl

Front 53

Spongy urethra

Back 53

part through penis

Front 54

Prostatic urethra

Back 54

part through prostate gland

Front 55

Membranous urethra

Back 55

shortest part, connects prostatic and spongy urethra, passes through urogenital diaphragm