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176 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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The structural and functional unit of living organisms is the _____________.
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cell
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i. Cells are the building blocks of all plants and animals
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part of the cell theory
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ii. Cells are produced by the division of preexisting cells
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part of the cell theory
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iii. Cells are the smallest unit that perform all vital physiological functions
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part of the cell theory
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iv. Each cell maintains homeostasis at the cellular level
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part of the cell theory
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v. Homeostasis at the tissue, organ, organ system and organism level reflects the combined and coordinated actions of many cells
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part of the cell theory
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Human body cells, plant cells, protest cells
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Eukaryotic
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Bacterial cells
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Prokaryotic
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two lipid layers (phospholipids) arranged tail to tail with suspended proteins
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plasma membrane
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physical isolation, regulation of exchange with the environment, sensitivity, structural support
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functions of the plasma membrane
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The cellular material outside that greatly increase the cell’s surface area for more absorption he nucleus and inside the plasma
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What is the purpose of microvilli?
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High concentration of Na ions and low concentration of K ions
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Extracellular Fluid
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High concentration of K ions and low concentration of Na ions
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Intracellular Fluid
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organelle involved in the formation of the spindle fibers during mitosis
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Centrioles
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Ribosomes are the site of ____________
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protein synthesis
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What organelle is the powerhouse of the cell?
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Mitochondria
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serves as a minicirculatory system for the cell
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Endoplasmic Reticulum
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Modifies and packages secretions, such as hormones or enzymes, for release through exocytosis
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golgi apparatus
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Renews or modifies the cell membrane
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golgi apparatus
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Packages special enzymes within vesicles for use in the cytosol
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golgi apparatus
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control center of the cell
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Nucleus
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Chromatin threads coil and condense to form ____________.
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chromosomes
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What type of permeability does the plasma membrane have?
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selectively permeable
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allows some substances to pass while excluding others.
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selectively permeable
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two main types of passive transport
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Diffusion and Filtration
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The process by which molecules and ions scatter themselves throughout available space is known as __________.
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Diffusion
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In diffusion, molecules move from _________ ___________ concentrations.
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from high to low
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The simple diffusion of water is _______________.
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osmosis
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In osmosis, water will flow toward the solution with a _____________ concentration of solutes. (higher or lower)
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higher
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two types of active transport
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solute pumping, bulk transport
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Which moves substances into the cell? Out of the cell?
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Endocytosis; Exocytosis
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What is the cell life cycle?
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series of changes a cell goes through from the time it is formed until it divides
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What are the two main parts of the cell life cycle?
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interphase and cell division
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The division of the nucleus is known as ____________.
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Mitosis
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What are the 4 stages of mitosis?
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prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
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Chromosomes aligned at the center of the spindle
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Metaphase
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Chromosomes move toward opposite ends of the cell
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Anaphase
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Centrioles separate and move to opposite poles
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Prophase
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Nuclear envelop forms and nucleoli appear
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Telophase
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The process of going from DNA to mRNA is known as _____________.
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Transcription
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The process of going from mRNA to protein is known as _____________.
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Translation
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If I give you a strand of DNA, be able to give me a complementary strand, mRNA strand, and the amino acid sequence.
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If I give you a strand of DNA, be able to give me a complementary strand, mRNA strand, and the amino acid sequence.
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epithelial, connective, muscle, or nervous
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four major types of tissues
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Highly specialized to contract and shorten to produce movement
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muscular
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Covers all exposed body surfaces
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epithelial
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Made of cells that receive and conduct electrochemical impulses
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nervous
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physical protection, control permeability, provide sensation, produce secretions
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functions of epithelium
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What are the two types of secretions?
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exocrine secretions
endocrine secretions |
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released onto the surface of the skin/epithelial surface; ex. – sweat, mammary milk
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exocrine secretions
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released into the surrounding interstitial fluid and blood; (hormones); ex. – thyroid and pituitary gland secretions
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endocrine secretions
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What 2 ways is epithelium classified?
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number of cell layers and shape of cells
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One layer of cells is named ______.
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simple
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Many layers of cells are named_________.
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stratified
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What are the 3 shapes of cells?
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squamous, cuboidal, columnar
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One layer of flat cells would be?
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simple squamous
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Forms membranes where filtration or exchange of substances by rapid diffusion occurs
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special types of epithelium
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Forms serous membranes – line body cavities and cover organs
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special types of epithelium
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One layer of cuboidal cells would be?
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Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
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Common in glands, wall of kidney tubules, and surface of ovaries
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Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
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One layer of column cells would be?
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Simple Columnar Epithelium
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digestive tract epithelium
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Simple Columnar Epithelium
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Pseudostratified columnar epithelium gives a false impression that it is _____________.
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stratified
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Several layers of flat cells would be?
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Stratified Squamous Epithelium
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Found in sites that receive lots of abuse or friction
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Stratified Squamous Epithelium
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Esophagus, mouth, outer portion of skin
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Stratified Squamous Epithelium
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urinary bladder, the ureters, and part of the urethra
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Transitional epithelium
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forms the lining of a few organs
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Transitional epithelium
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Where do endocrine glands secret their product?
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directly into the blood vessels that weave through the glands
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Where do exocrine glands secret their product?
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epithelial surface
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What are the 3 main types of connective tissue?
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connective tissue proper, fluid connective tissue, supporting connective tissue
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Adipocytes are found in
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connective tissue proper
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tendons, ligaments, elastic tissue
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dense regular tissue
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two types of fluid connective tissue
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blood and plasma
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two supporting connective tissues
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bone and cartilage
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3 types of cartilage
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hyaline, fibrocartilage, and elastic
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type of membrane lines cavities that communicate with the exterior
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mucous membranes
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type of membrane lines the body’s sealed cavities
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serous membranes
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portion of the serous membrane covers the actual organ itself
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visceral
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portion of the serous membrane covers the surface of the cavity
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parietal
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membrane covers the body surface
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cutaneous membrane
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membrane lines synovial joints
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synovial membranes
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3 types of muscle
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smooth, cardiac, and skeletal
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What is included in the cutaneous membrane?
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skin, associated hairs, nails, and exocrine glands
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protection, excretion, regulates body temperature, synthesis of a steriod (vitamin D3), storage of nutrients, provides a sensory perception
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basic skin functions
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two layers making up the skin
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dermis and epidermis ste
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Most of the cells in the epidermis are ______________?
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keratinocytes
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produce keratin
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keratinocytes
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List the 5 layers of the epidermis starting with the innermost layer.
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stratum germinativum, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum, stratum corneum,
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3 cell types of the stratum germinativum
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basal cells, merkel cells, melanocytes
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stem cells in the stratum germinativum
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basal cells
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provide information to the nervous system about object that touch the skin
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merkel cells
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produce melanin
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melanocytes
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depends on blood supply and pigments
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skin color
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How do melanocytes respond to ultraviolet radiation?
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Slowly respond (sunburn) by producing melanin (tan)
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Causes mutations in DNA
Promote cancer Damage fibroblasts |
ultraviolet radiation harmful
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reduce the amount of elastin in the dermis which produces wrinkles and sagging
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aging, hormones, and ultraviolet radiation effects of the dermis
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loose connective tissue and fat cells
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hypodermis
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hair and follicles, glands in the skin, nails
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3 accessory structures of the skin
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protect from ultraviolet light, cushion a blow to the head, and insulate the skull
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functions of hair on the head
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prevent foreign particles and insects from getting in
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Nostrils and ears
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sebaceous (oil) glands and sweat glands (sudoiferous glands)
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two main glands types in the skin
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Holocrine glands that discharges the waxy, oily sebum into a lumen and ultimately into a hair follicle
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sebaceous glands
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apocrine and merocrine (eccrine)
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sweat glands
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entire surface of the body
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merocrine sweat glands
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watery secretion known as sensible perspiration
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merocrine glands produce
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cool the skin’s surface à lowers body’s temperature
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functions of merocrine sweat glands
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excretion of water and electrolytes
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functions of merocrine sweat glands
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protection from environmental hazards-dilutes harmful chemicals and retards microbial growth
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functions of merocrine sweat glands
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The integument can respond automatically in response to stress without the involvement of ___________
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endocrine or nervous system
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1. bleeding at the injury site; inflammatory response
2. scab (blood clot) forms at the surface – restricts entry of additional microorganism 3. fibroblast and mesenchymal cell division produce mobile cells that migrate to the injury 4. clot dissolves, fibroblasts continue to create scar tissue |
4 steps of integument repair
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Epidermis thins – older people prone to injury and skin infections
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effects of aging on the integument
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Number of Langerhans cells decrease à reduce sensitivity of immune system
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effects of aging on the integument
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Vitamin D3 production declines à leads to muscle weakness and reduced bone strength
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effects of aging on the integument
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Melanoctye activity declines à more sensitive to sun exposure, more sunburns
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effects of aging on the integument
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Glandular activity declines à older people cannot loose heat as fast (can overheat)
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effects of aging on the integument
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Reduced blood supply to the dermis
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effects of aging on the integument
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Hair follicles stop functioning or produce thinner hairs; gray or white hairs
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effects of aging on the integument
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Dermis thins and elastic fiber network decrease in size à sagging and wrinkling occur
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effects of aging on the integument
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Secondary sexual characteristics in hair and body-fat distribution begin to fade
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effects of aging on the integument
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Skin repairs are slow à recurring skin infections
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effects of aging on the integument
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support, storage of minerals and tissues, blood cell production, protection, leverage
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functions of the skeletal system
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Bones are classified according to their __________.
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shapes
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two types of bone tissue
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compact (dense) bone and spongy (cancellous) bone
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relatively solid and located on the surface of the bone
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compact (dense) bone
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open network of struts and plates and is the interior of the bone
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spongy (cancellous) bone
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marrow has mainly fat cells
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yellow bone marrow
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for lipid storage (energy reserve); occurs in medullary cavities of the long bones
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yellow marrow
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has mature/immature red and white blood cells, and stem cells; blood cell formation; present ribs, vertebrae, sternum and bones of the pelvis, and ends of the humerus and femur
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red bone marrow.
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What does the matrix of bone consist of?
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crystals of hydroxyapatite
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product of calcium phosphate and calcium hydroxide interaction
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matrix of bone
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a. accounts for 66% of the weight of bone
b. hard c. relatively inflexible d. brittle e. can withstand compression f. shatter when exposed to bending, twisting, or sudden impacts |
calcium phosphate contribution to the matrix
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a. accounts for 33% of the weight of bone
b. strong c. flexible d. tolerate twisting and bending e. bend when compressed |
collagen fibers contribution to the matrix
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Osteoprogenitor cells
Osteoblasts (bone-forming cells) Osteocytes (Bone cells) Osteoclasts |
4 types of cells in bone
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produce daughter cells that differentiate into osteoblasts, important in fracture repair
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Osteoprogenitor cells
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produce new bone matrix through osteogenesis
synthesize and release proteins and organic compounds that will become the bone matrix help in elevating concentrations of calcium phosphate and deposition of calcium salts è converts osteoid (-matrix prior to calcification) to bone |
Osteoblasts (bone-forming cells)
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Recycle the calcium salts in the matrix by secreting chemicals that dissolve the adjacent matrix and stimulate deposition of new crystals
Participate in repair of damage bone; can convert into osteoblasts or osteoprogenitor cell |
Osteocytes (Bone cells)
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cause resorption of bone through osteolysis (by secretion of enzymes that digest the protein matrix of the bone and release the minerals)
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Osteoclasts
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contains trabeculae – struts and plates of matrix, typically in an open network
no osteons no blood vessels |
structure of spongy bone
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lighter than compact bone – reduces the weight of the skeleton (easier to move around)
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structure of spongy bone
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no osteons
no blood vessels |
structure of spongy bone
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the process of converting other tissues to bone
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ossification
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the process of depositing calcium salts within a tissue
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calcification
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1. Mesenchymal cells secrete organic components of the matrix; Osteoid becomes mineralized; begins at an ossification center
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Intramembranous ossification
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2. Bone grows outward from the ossification center; spicules – small struts; continued production of osteoblasts; blood vessels become entrapped in bone
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Intramembranous ossification
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3 Bone initially contains only spongy bone; remolding that can convert it to compact bone; osteoblasts close to the bone become less active
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Intramembranous ossification
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5. centers of epiphyses calcify; capillaries and osteoblasts move to these areas ècreate secondary ossification centers
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Endochondrial ossification
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4. The central portion of the bone is eroded away è marrow cavity; further growth involves two different processes: longitudinal growth and growth in diameter (appositional growth)
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Endochondrial ossification
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Occurs at the metaphysis (between epiphysis and diaphysis). There is a proliferation of new cartilage cells to the epiphyseal side of the metaphysis and a formation of bone on the diaphyseal side of the metaphysis. “Diaphysis is chasing the epiphysis”
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Longitudinal growth:
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3. Blood vessels penetrate and invade the cartilage; fibroblasts differentiate into osteoblasts è produces spongy bone at the primary center of ossification
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Endochondrial ossification
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2. Blood vessels grow into the perichondrium; perichondrium cells differentiate into osteoblasts; osteogenic layer produces a thin layer of bone around the shaft of cartilage
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Endochondrial ossification
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1. Cartilage enlarges, chondrocytes and lacunae enlarges è reduces the matrix to thin struts è struts calcify è chondrocytes die (without nutrients)
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Endochondrial ossification
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Turnover rate is high
Every part of the bone may or may not be affected |
bone remodeling
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Alter the shape, internal architecture or mineral content of the bone
Involves the activities of osteocytes, osteoblasts and Osteoclasts: |
bone remodeling
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Can replace the matrix of the bone and leave the whole bone unchanged
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bone remodeling
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Turnover and recycling of minerals gives each bone the ability to adapt to stresses.
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exercise effect bone
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The shapes and thicknesses of bones reflect the stresses applied to them (ex. - high stress bones become thicker and stronger)
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exercise effect bone
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Degenerative changes can occur in the skeleton after brief periods of inactivity (cast on a broken leg); * also a problem for astronauts
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exercise effect bone
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How much of the calcium in the body is found in the skeleton?
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99%
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What mechanisms controls calcium homeostasis?
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negative feedback system
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What two hormones regulate calcium ion homeostasis?
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calcitonin and parathyroid hormone (PTH)
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decreasing the rate of excretion of calcium ions at the kidneys
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parathyroid hormone
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increases the rate of intestinal absorption of calcium ions by amplifying calcitriol action
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parathyroid hormone
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stimulates osteoclast activity and amplifying recycling of minerals by osteocytes
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parathyroid hormone
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(lead to decline in calcium concentrations in bloodstream - increase calcium concentrations in bone tissue)
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calcitonin
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Inhibiting osteoclast activity
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calcitonin
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Increasing the rate of excretion of calcium ions at the kidneys
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calcitonin
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Remodeling of bone for 4 –12+ months
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Step 4 of Repair Process
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· formation of a fracture hematoma – closes off injured blood vessels and leaves a fibrous meshwork in the damaged area
· lack of circulation kills osteocytes, dead bone extends along the shaft |
Step 1 of Repair Process
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central cartilage of the external callus is replaced with spongy bone
external and internal callus form a widespread and continuous brace at the fracture site |
Step 3 of Repair Process
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external and internal callus form a widespread and continuous brace at the fracture site
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Step 3 of Repair Process
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endosteum and periosteum go through mitosis and produce cells that move to the fractured area
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Step 2a of Repair Process
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form an external callus – enlarged collar of cartilage and bone; encircles the bone at the level of the fracture; cells at the center of the external callus produce blocks of cartilage
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Step 2b of Repair Process
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form an internal callus – within marrow cavity and between the broken ends of the shaft
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Step 2c of Repair Process
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cells at the ends of both calluses build a bridge between bone fragments on each side of the fracture
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Step 2d of Repair Process
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Bones become thinner and relatively weaker
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aging affect the skeletal system
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inadequate ossification
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osteopenia
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