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250 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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indulgence
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a pardon granted to a person in exchange for money that absolved them of their sins. This was one of the main concerns of Luther, who believed that indulgences were abused and didn't actually make people repent.
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Diet of Worms
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an assembly summoned by Charles V to force Luther to withdraw his 95 Theses and his criticism of the Church. Luther did not recant, and so he was condemned by Charles V.
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Ninety- Five Theses on the Power of Indulgences
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a document of Martin Luther that outlined his complaints against the Catholic Church and was widely read throughout Germany.
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Confession of Augsburg (1530)
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Luther's explanation of his beliefs to Charles V at the Diet of Augsburg.
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sola scriptura
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a Latin term meaning “scripture alone” that expressed the idea that all beliefs of Christianity should be able to be found in the Scriptures.
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priesthood of all believers
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a belief of Luther that no one person or place should represent the church, that it rested between a community of Christians
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preacherships
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a position established by Lutheranism in which educated men gave regular sermons of good quality
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Twelve Articles
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a document created by Swabian peasants that listed their complaints against lords and described the corruption of the lords. Lutheran originally supported their cause, then recanted his support because he didn't think that they should oppose the government
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German Peasant's Revolt of 1525
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a rebellion by peasants that improved their condition a little but mostly helped lay rulers.
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Luther's Catechisms
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the Larger Catechism and the Shorter Catechism exhibited Luther's writing and further explained Lutheran ideals and faith.
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Appeal to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation (1520)
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a Lutheran document that told German princes to destroy the Catholic Church in Germany. Princes adhered to this and confiscated Catholic wealth.
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Habsburg-Valois Wars
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a series of wars between Charles V and German princes over the right to have Protestantism in Germany. It broke apart Germany into regions, but ended in the Peace of Augsburg
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Peace of Augsburg (1555)
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an arrangement between Charles V and German princes after the Habsburg-Valois Wars in which Lutheranism was recognized and individual territories were able to choose between Lutheranism and Catholicism.
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Calvinism
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a protestant religion founded by John Calvin
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predestination
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the belief that God had already decided the fate of each individual and if they will be saved or not. Calvin thought predestination was true and therefore that people didn't have any free will.
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Genevan Consistory
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a governing body that oversaw Geneva and attempted to reform it to Calvinist beliefs. It concerned itself with not only secular but religious supervision.
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Company of Pastors
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the ruling group of the Genevan Consistory. Calvin was the permanent head of this group.
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Anabaptists
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a pacifist Protestant group that did not attempt to force their ideas on others and let women be ministers. Anabaptists were persecuted by other Protestant groups.
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Act in Restraint of Appeals (1533)
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a document pushed through parliament by Henry VIII that made the king in charge of all England and eliminated the right of the Church to deal with legal matters.
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The Supremacy Act (1534)
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a document that made the king, Henry VIII, in charge of the Church of England and established the Anglican Church while dismissing the Catholic Church.
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Pilgrimage of Grace (1536)
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a rebellion of northern Englishmen against the creation of the Anglican Church
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Book of Common Prayer (1549)
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a book written by Thomas Cranmer that established Anglican Church customs
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Elizabethan Settlement
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laws written during Elizabeth I's reign that commanded people to attend the Church of England
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Thirty-Nine Articles (1563)
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a document written by bishops that explained the ideas of the Anglican church.
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Presbyterian Church of Scotland
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a Protestant Church created in Scotland ruled by ministers, or presbyters, that resembled Calvinism and was created by John Knox
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Battle of Pavia (1525)
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a battle between Francis I and Charles V over control of Italy. Francis lost and was captured.
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The Council of Trent (1545-1563)
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a series of meetings between leaders of the Catholic Church to combat Protestantism and clarify the Catholic doctrine. It rejected Protestantism and said that both scripture and tradition were valid sources of Christianity. The Council of Trent attempted to get rid of pluralism and indulgences.
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Tametsi
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a Tridentine decree that said that marriage was only legitimate if it was made before a priest, with witnesses.
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Ursuline
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an order formed by Angela Merici that only included women, which spread to the New World to educate and convert its people.
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The Society of Jesus
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another name for the Jesuits, an order founded by Ignatius Loyola that specialized in traveling to help people. They became very influential and reconverted much of Europe
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Holy Office
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a group created by Pope Paul III to oversee the Inquisition in Italy.
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Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis (1559)
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the treaty that ended the Habsburg-Valois Wars, which ended with Spain the victor.
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Concordat of Bologna
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a treaty between France's Francis I and the Catholic Church, where the French king could select French bishops but the pope was declared the head of the entire Church.
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Huguenots
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the term referring to French Calvinists
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St. Bartholomew's Day massacre (1572)
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a riot that happened between Huguenots and Catholics after a prominent Huguenot was attacked. The massacre started the War of the Three Henrys.
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War of the Three Henrys
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a civil war between Henry of Guise, Henry of Navarre and Henry III
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politiques
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moderates of Calvinism and Catholics in France who thought that restoring political order was more important than religion.
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Edict of Nantes(1598)
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a document published by Henry of Navarre which allowed Huguenots to practice religion in certain specified towns.
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Riots in 1566
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riots that happened when poor Calvinists in the Netherlands were angry with Catholics and destroyed churches.
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Council of Blood
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a tribunal called by the Duke of Alva to prosecute Calvinists involved in riots.
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Union of Utrecht
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seven Protestant provinces in the north of the Netherlands that broke from Spanish control.
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Spanish Armada (1588)
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the fleet of ships assembled by the Catholic Philip II against the Protestant Elizabeth I in response to the death of Mary, Queen of Scots. The English defeated the Armada but it created a war between England and Spain.
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Protestant Union (1608)
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a union created by a group of Lutheran German princes afraid of the consequences if the Peace of Augsburg was broken.
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Catholic League (1609)
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a union created by Catholic Germans to combat the Protestant Union
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Thirty Years War (1618-1648)
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a war between Catholics and Protestants in Europe. It had four separate phases and ended in the Peace of Westphalia.
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Bohemian Phase
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the first phase of the Thirty Years War in which there was civil war in Bohemia. The phase ended in the Catholic victory of Ferdinand of Styria against Frederick.
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Danish Phase
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the second phase of the Thirty Years War in which the Catholic Albert of Wallenstein defeated King Christian IV of Denmark.
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Edict of Restitution (1629)
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a document made by Ferdinand of Styria, who was encourage by Jesuits. The Edict said that all Catholic properties lost during the Reformation had to be returned and only Lutherans and Catholics could practice.
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Swedish Phase
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the third phase of the Thirty Years War in which the Protestant Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus defeated the Catholic Cardinal Richelieu. Because the Swedes won, the German states became united.
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International (French) Phase
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the last phase when the French started participating in the war as Protestants. Many countries became involved in the war, and the German economy was severely damaged by the war.
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Peace of Westphalia (1648)
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the treaty that ended the Thirty Years War that divided Germany into separate regions, the validity of the United Provinces of the Netherlands was recognized, Sweden gained money and territories, France received Alsace, the Peace of Augsburg was upheld, and the pope was no longer allowed to participate in German religion.
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Age of Discovery/Reconnaissance/ Expansion
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a period of time from 1450 to 1650 in which Europeans began exploring and conquering the rest of the world.
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Dutch East India Company
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a company sponsored by the government to trade with India and helped establish the Netherlands as a major European power.
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Galleys
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large boats that were moved by men with oars and couldn't be effectively used on rough water
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caravels
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a Portuguese boat that could be used in place of the galley that was small and quick
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astrolabe
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a device that originated from Muslims that allowed sailors to identify their latitude.
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General History if the Indies
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a book written by Fernandez de Oviedo that fueled the curiosity of Europeans by describing the customs and organisms in the Indies
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De Insulis Investis
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a letter written by Columbus about what he had discovered in the New World that was widely printed
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Mundus Novus
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a letter written by Amerigo Vespucci about the New World that described America as separate from Asia
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Golden Century of Spain
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a term referring to the prosperity of Spain in the sixteenth century.
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price revolution
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the inflation of prices in Spain thought to be caused by either the wealth from America or the population growth
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Columbian Exchange
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a term for the distribution of biosocial items between Europe, the Americas, and Africa.
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Viceroyalties
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the divisions that Spain made in the New World, each having a different governor and council.
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Quinto
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one-fifth of the metals produced in South America, which belonged to the Spanish monarchy and provided a lot of their wealth
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witch
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a person believed to be in league with the Devil. Women thought to be witches were persecuted throughout Europe.
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witch hunts
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a mass movement, in which people who were thought to be a witches were investigated and executed.
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New World Slavery
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Natives in the Americas became subject to Spanish slave owners. They filled up the need for a labor force in the New World.
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Elizabethan
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referring to accomplishments in the arts during the reign of Elizabeth I
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Jacobean
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referring to accomplishments in the arts during the reign of James I
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Baroque
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a movement in the arts of the late 1500s that was intentionally emotional and religious.
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King James Bible
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a new translation and revision of the Bible that was created by James I and was used to popularize the Scriptures.
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absolutism
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a form of government in which the sovereign has complete rule over his domain, and seeks to gain power through social, economic, and military control.
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divine right
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the belief that a ruler has his right to rule directly from God.
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Bureaucracies
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the term for governments with an organized system of officials, who serve the state as their primary job
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administrative monarchy
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a monarchy in which its bureaucracy was developed and could therefore accomplish more
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totalitarianism
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a government that has total control over all aspects of its domain, like a more powerful absolutist government
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paulette
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an attempt to balance taxes within France by Henry IV, a tax paid by royal officials so that their sons can receive their position after they die.
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Generalities
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regions that France was divided in by Cardinal Richelieu, each government by an intedentant
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intendants
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people appointed to control generalities
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French riots between 1630-1711
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a series of revolts by poor French in the cities in protest of taxes, food prices, and conditions. During these riots, tax officials would be killed. They normally ended with monarchs appeasing them, until absolutists leaders used harsher military tactics.
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French Academy (1635)
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a linguistic institution founded by Richelieu to standardize French.
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raison d'etat
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a French phrase translating to “reason of state”, meaning that God recognizes that sovereigns do un-Christian things as a means to an end.
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Fronde (1648-1653)
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a civil war in French cities between aristocrats that represented their dissatisfaction with the French government turning away from the nobility in creating a centralized state.
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Versailles
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the palace of Louis XIV, with exceptional art and architecture meant to glorify Louis
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mercantilism
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when the government controls the economy through taxes and management of imports. The government does this on the assumption that the accumulation of natural resources is in the best interests of the state, this is an absolutist policy.
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the revocation of the Edict of Nantes
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when Louis XIV declared the Edict of Nantes invalid, essentially making Calvinism illegal in France
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French classicism
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a style of art found in France during the reign of Louis XIV, that paralleled Renaissance art in its appreciation of the classical.
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treaty of Nijmegen (1678)
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a treaty between France, Spain (acting on the part of the Spanish Netherlands), and the Holy Roman Empire in which France gained territory in the Spanish Netherlands
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War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1713)
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a war between France and the Grand Alliance (England, the Netherlands, Austria and Prussia) over the influence of France in Spain. This came about when the grandson Louis XIV was in line to accept the Spanish crown, allowing Louis XIV to have direct influence in Spain against the wish of the previous king and the rest of Europe.
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Peace of Utrecht
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the treaty that ended the War of the Spanish Succession in which Philip of Anjou remained king and France ceded territory. The Peace was important because it ended France's policy of expansion.
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Don Quixote
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a novel written by Miguel de Cervantes that ridiculed the lack of action on the part of Spanish society.
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Constitutionalism
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the “limitation of government by law”
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The Trew Law of Free Monarchy
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a document published by James I that outlined his view that a king ruled by divine right, and was not subject to earthly powers.
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House of Commons
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one of the houses of Parliament primarily composed of a wealthy middle class and was the largest power in opposition to James I and Charles I.
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Long Parliament (1640-1660)
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the Parliament that was reinstated after Charles I dissolved it, and passed laws that tried to reassert the power of Parliament over the monarchy.
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Triennial Act (1641)
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a document passed by the House of Commons during the Long Parliament that required Parliament to be summoned at least once every three years.
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Court of High Commission
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a court created by William Laud that attempted to enforce his belief of uniform ritualized church services. It was abolished by the House of Commons during the Long Parliament.
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parliamentary army
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an army made by Charles I as a reaction to the Irish rebellion since he was not allowed a formal army under Parliament. It consisted of the nobility, country-dwelling middle class, mercenaries, and London police.
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English Civil War (1642-1649)
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a war that reflected the conflict between Charles I and Parliament. It ended with the execution of Charles I.
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Interregnum (1649-1660)
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the period of time between monarchs in English history in which a commonwealth ruled.
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commonwealth (republican government)
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a government that is ruled solely by representatives of the people, and no actual monarch.
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Instrument of Government (1653)
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a constitution made by Parliament to regulate England, but was destroyed by Cromwell, who created his own military dictatorship.
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Navigation Act (1651)
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a document made by Cromwell that was mercantilist in nature and said that English products had to be transported by English ships.
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Restoration of 1660
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when England re-accepted the monarchy and Parliament, and Charles II started ruling as a king.
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Test Act of 1673
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a document created by Charles II that restricted non- Anglicans from participating in public life.
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Cabal
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a group of men that formed an early cabinet that advised Charles II and served in Parliament
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Glorious Revolution (1688-1689)
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the transference of power from James II to William and Mary of Orange, called “Glorious” because it was done with a limited amount of violence. In it, James II left the country and Parliament offered the crown to William and Mary with the understanding that they would respect Parliament and the Bill of Rights.
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Bill of Rights
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a document that outlined what consisted of a violation of rights by the government in an attempt to dispel absolutism, created by Parliament after the Glorious Revolution
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Second Treatise of Civil Government (1690)
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a document written by John Locke that expressed his ideas of natural rights.
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Cabinet system
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a system of government in which the monarch has advisers that work together on government affairs
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States General
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the body of Dutch representatives from all of the Estates who worked together on international policy.
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stadholder
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a representative of the States General that ruled in each Dutch province
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Dutch East India Company
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a business in the Netherlands that dealt in international commerce and was highly successful for its time. It brought a lot of wealth into the Netherlands and was responsible for its dominance in trade.
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Serfdom
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a system of oppression in which poor subjects work on wealthy nobles' land for little to no money.
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hereditary subjugation
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an extension on serfdom in which a peasant's children are also bound to work for the noble.
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law code of 1649
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a law that allowed lords to regain runaway serfs no matter how long it had been since they had run away.
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Bohemian Estates
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a representative system of the Czechs for each estate, and an attempt to give Protestant rights to the nobility.
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Battle of the White Mountain (1620)
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a fight between Ferdinand II and the nobility of the Bohemian Estates, ending with the victory of Ferdinand and the demise of the Estates.
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Ottoman Empire
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a huge amount of territory controlled by a sultan that included parts of central Europe and Africa and presented a major threat to the Habsburgs
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millet system
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a system in which regions were divided into “millets”, which were culturally and almost political independent except for the fact they were approved by the Ottoman sultan.
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Pragmatic Sanction(1713)
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a document created by Charles VI that ensured that regions under Habsburg would never be divided, even if there was no male heir.
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Hohenzollern family
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a powerful family in Eastern Europe, that ruled in Prussia and Germany.
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elector of Brandenburg
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one of six electors that would select the Holy Roman emperor, but lacked an army and could not defend his territories.
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Junkers
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the nobility and the wealthy middle class in Eastern Europe
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Eastern Orthodoxy
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an Eastern European Christianity that is similar in doctrine from Catholicism, but denies the legitimacy of the Pope
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Mongol Yoke
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the control of Russia by Mongolians that severely devastated the development of the country. They were overthrown by Russians who had gained political power and were able to overcome them.
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Cossacks
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peasants who rejected the authority of the Ivan the Terrible and subsequent tsars and started armies that fought against nobles all over Russia. They were destroyed by a combined group of nobles.
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Time of Troubles
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a term referring to the time of civil war after the death of Theodore in which nobles fought amongst themselves and Cossacks started rebellion. It ended with the election of Michael Romanov as tsar.
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Great Northern War (1700-1721)
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a war between Peter the Great of Russia and Charles XII of Sweden, which ended in Russian victory.
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St. Petersburg
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a port city captured by Peter the Great in the Great Northern War that served as a symbol for Western influenced Russia and the rejection of Old Russian culture.
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World-view
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personal view of life that can be changed by political, economic, or social changes in one’s region
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Scientific revolution
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a movement, primarily in Western Europe, when science started to override theology in terms of explanations of the natural world. It was based in the aristocracy who supported the scientists and philosophers of the era.
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Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres
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the main work of Copernicus, published the year he died, that expressed his heliocentric views
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Copernican hypothesis
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Copernicus's views, including the idea that stars are fixed objects, a vast universe, and multiple planets of which Earth was only one. This contradicted the beliefs of Aristotle.
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Kepler's laws of planetary motion
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three laws that said that planets have elliptical orbits, planets vary in speed during their orbit, and planets have proportional orbit.
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Experimental method
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a way of approaching science that was expanded upon by Galileo, in which experiments were the primary method of gathering data.
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Law of inertia
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a law contradicting the beliefs of Aristotle, that said that an object will continue to be in motion until it is stopped by another force.
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Law of universal gravitation
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a law proposed by Isaac Newton, stating that “every body in the universe attracts every other body in the universe in a precise mathematical relationship” (McKay, 601).
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Gresham College
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a university in London, founded by Thomas Gresham, that was devoted entirely to scientific studies.
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Royal Society of London
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a scientific organization that was founded in 1662 and sponsored the endeavors of scientists
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Cartesian dualism
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the philosophic division of the world into the “matter” and “mind”, an idea first proposed by Rene Descartes.
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Enlightenment
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a movement in Western Europe when new social ideas were put forth concerning the role of the government, natural rights, and what the goals of a nation should be
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rationalism
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the enlightened idea that all knowledge should be based on solid evidence
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progress
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the enlightened idea that society should continue to grow and develop, moving forward
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skepticism
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an idea related to rationalism, in which one doubts everything that cannot be known for sure because all aspects of life are relative.
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Tabula rasa
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a term meaning “blank slate”, the Lockean idea that human knowledge is derive from experience, not intuition.
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Philosophes
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a term meaning “philosophers”, the participants and perpetuators of the Enlightenment, whose discussion and publication of works created the movement. Philosophes belonged to the upper classes.
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The public
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the educated upper class that philosophes were trying to reach during the Enlightenment
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separation of powers
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a check on government, where different groups within the country hold influence, preventing an absolutist government
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Encyclopedia: The Rational Dictionary of the Sciences, the Arts, and the Crafts
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the first Encyclopedia, created by Diderot and d'Alembert to educate people about science and to change their perspective. It was banned initially in France by the Church, and later edited to become less controversial.
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Salons
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a term for the drawing-rooms of the aristocracy, where ideals of the Enlightenment were discussed.
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Enlightened absolutism
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a term referring to despots who implemented Enlightenment ideas into their rule without giving up power.
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Seven Years War (1756-1763
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a war in which Maria Theresa tried to retaliate against Prussia for its theft of Silesia, and that eventually involved most of Europe, extending to the French and Indian Wars in America.
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famine foods
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foods the lower classes turned to in desperation during a famine for nutrition.
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open-field system
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a medieval system where farming and land was communal
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common lands
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lands open to all that were kept by a particular village for grazing
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agricultural revolution
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a period of time in Western Europe were new agricultural methods were developed.
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crop rotation
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a system where crops were rotated to prevent land from being exhausted
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enclosure
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the opposite of the open-field system, where land was divided and there were no areas that were shared by the village.
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seed drill
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an invention that sowed seeds at equal spaces and depths
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proletarianization
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the “transformation of large numbers of small peasant farmers into landless rural wage earners”
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population explosion of the 18th century
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a population boom brought on by increased food and new medicinal techniques
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cottage industry
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the industry where workers were poor peasant farmers working in their homes with their families
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putting-out system
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the means by which the cottage industry formed. Merchants would loan raw materials and equipment to a worker, who would make the product and give it back to the merchant. Through this system, the merchant would receive most of the money.
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textile industry
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a growing business that was a cottage industry and took up the majority of production
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Navigation Acts
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a series of laws that promoted English trade and severely threatened Dutch hold on trade
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Atlantic slave trade
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the trade of slaves between Africa and Europe
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Creoles
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a class of people born in America of Spanish heritage that came to contribute to the demand of goods, stimulating trade.
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Inquire into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations
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a book by Adam Smith that opposed mercantilism, expressing Smith's proposition of the free market and the invisible hand.
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economic liberalism
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a laissez-faire doctrine in economics, whose foundation was provided for by Adam Smith
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Treaty of Amiens (1802)
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a document that ended a war between Napoleon and Great Britain that allowed Napoleon to reshape German states and increased Napoleon's popularity in France
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Battle of Trafalgar
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a defeat of Napoleon by Lord Nelson that stopped him from invading Great Britain
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Fourth Coalition
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an alliance made of Austria, Prussia, Russia and Great Britain that defeated Napoleon and exiled him to an island
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Constitutional Charter
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the document that soothed the people over the coming to power of Louis XVIII by guaranteeing many changes made during the Revolution.
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Napoleonic Code
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a document that took many rights away from women and installed a family monarchy
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family monarchy
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the idea that a family works like a kingdom, with the father acting as an absolute monarch
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Concordat of 1801
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an agreement between Pope Pius VII and Napoleon that allowed religious freedom for Catholics but gave Napoleon power over the Church.
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Civil Code of 1804
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an agreement between Napoleon and the middle class that allowed for legal equality for citizens and the protection of property.
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Jacobins
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a political group in the National Assembly that tended to be young and radical, eventually creating leaders such as Robespierre
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second revolution
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the second phase of the French revolution, during which France became a republic and was under the rule of Robespierre
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Girondists
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a political group in the National Convention that was republican but feared “a bloody dictatorship by the Mountain”
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The Mountain
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a political group in the National Convention that was also republican but feared that the Girondists would turn to conservatives
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sans-culottes
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members of the lower classes that became interested in politics and were a radical force and the source of many uprisings
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Reign of Terror (1793-1794)
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a time period in which Robespierre persecuted any suspected political dissenters and created mass executions
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nationalism
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a feeling among the population of a country that they belong to a single nation and share a culture
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Thermidorian reaction
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a response to Robespierre aggressive execution of people the sans-culottes supported and Robespierre himself was executed
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the Directory
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an oligarchy created after the fall of Robespierre that was made of five members, but failed to control the country effectively and was overthrown by Napoleon
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planned economy
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an economy in which the government sets maximum prices in attempt to make necessary products affordable
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Vindication of the Rights of Man
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a book written by Mary Wollstonecraft that declared woman's rights in response to the writings of Edmund Burke
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constitutional monarchy
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a monarchy limited by a legal document
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National Assembly
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a new group created out of members of the third estate, that ended up ruling France and morphed into the National Convention
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estate
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a legally defined social group set by the French government
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1st estate
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the clergy, who owned 10% of the land and had to pay limited taxes
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2nd estate
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the nobility, who owned 25 % of the land, and often didn't have to pay any taxes
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3rd estate
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the rest of the people, including the bourgeoisie, who made up the majority of the country
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manorial rights
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“privileges of lordship”, special abilities being able to tax the peasants that were available to the nobility
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Estates General
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an assembly made of representatives of all three estates
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What is the Third Estate?
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a book written by Sieyes that argued the third estate deserved more representation than it actually received
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Oath of the Tennis Court
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a pledge sworn by members of the third estate that a new constitution would be written before they disbanded.
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Great Fear
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a fear of bandits that induced peasants in the country to further rebel against the lords
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checks and balances
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the idea that government should be limited and no part of it should have absolute power
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Treaty of Paris
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the treaty that ended the American Revolution and created American independence
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Declaration of Independence
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the document detailing the wrongs of the British government in relation to the American people, and declaring independence
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Common Sense
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a pamphlet written by Thomas Paine that advocated revolution in the colonies
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Stamp Act
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a tax put on documents in the colonies by the British government, which made the colonists incredibly angry
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Classical liberalism
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a philosophy based in the ideas of the Enlightenment, including natural rights and happiness.
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Sovereignty
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the idea that a nation or a people can make their own political decisions and rule themselves
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Bourgeoisie
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the middle class that was a part of the third estate, but was separated from the lower classes by its education and wealth
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Industrial Revolution
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a term used to describe the rapid development of a number of industries in a relatively short period of time
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spinning jenny
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a machine that greatly increased the productivity and efficiency of the textile industry, by making it possible to spin multiple quantities of thread at once
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water frame
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another machine that helped the textile industry by allowing thread to be spun on a much larger scale, requiring the use of waterpower
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body linen
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undergarments that were made of cotton, previously only affordable to the wealthy
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power loom
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a steam-powered loom invented by Edmund Cartwright that greatly increased the production rate of cloth
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steam engine
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a machine that produced steam energy from coal, allowing it to be used to power other machines. James Watt made the most efficient model of the time, which was used throughout Britain
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coke
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a substance made from coal that made it easier to produce iron
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locomotives
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trains were improved greatly during the Industrial Revolution, making it easier for people to travel and for goods to be transported.
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Crystal Palace
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a building in London made only of glass and iron, exhibiting the abundance of those materials during the Industrial Revolution
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Essay on the Principle of Population
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a work written by Thomas Malthus which postulated that there would always be more people than it was possible to feed, and that it was necessary to limit population. Malthus thought that would be basically impossible to stop people from having many children.
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iron law of wages
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a theory posed by Ricardo that people would have to be paid just enough to keep them alive, or else the population would get too high.
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Tariff protection
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the term for a government protecting their economy (specifically from industrialized goods of higher quality) by putting taxes on foreign items
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National System of Political Economy
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a book by List that supported a tariff union between German states and was against free trade
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economic nationalism
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the belief that participating and growing an economy was a form of supporting the state
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Credit Mobilier
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a French bank that exhibited the new role of banks in the economy. It supported railroads, advertized, were international, and received funding from multiple donors.
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Class-consciousness
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- when people began to feel that they belonged to a certain economic class
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Luddites
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skilled workers who expressed their frustration against the Industrial Revolution by smashing up factory machines
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The Condition of the Working Class
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a book by Friedrich Engels that spoke out against industrialization and the middle class by sympathizing with the lower class workers
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Factory Act of 1833
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a law passed by Parliament that limited child labor by restricting the work hours for young children in factories, and requiring education for all children under 9
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Mines Act of 1842
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a law passed by Parliament that stopped women and young boys from working in the mines
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Combination Acts
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a group of laws passed by Parliament that abolished unions and strikes
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Grand National Consolidated Trades Union
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an organization founded by Robert Owen that was supposed to be a national union, but eventually collapsed
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Poor Law of 1834
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a British law that relieved poor people
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Benthamite
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a follower of Jeremy Bentham
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miasmatic theory
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a theory that disease spreads through the air
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germ theory
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the theory that disease spreads through microorganisms
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pasteurization
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a heating process that inhibits the growth of bacteria that could cause disease
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antiseptic principle
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a theory proposed by Joseph Lister, that applying a disinfectant to wounds greatly reduces the chance of infection
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labor aristocracy
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the upper working class, who set the standards for the groups below them. They were skilled laborers
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separate spheres
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the term for the different roles of males and females
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defense mechanisms
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a Freudian idea that we block our unconsciousness
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thermodynamics
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a new branch of science that “investigated the relationship between heat and mechanical energy”
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organic chemistry
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a new branch of science that studied carbon compounds
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System of Positive Philosophy
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the main volume of August Comte
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positivist method
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the application of Comte's scientific method to sociology
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evolution
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the idea that species are constantly developing over time
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On the Origin of Species by the Means of Natural Selection
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a book by Charles Darwin that expressed his ideas on evolution
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Social Darwinists
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people who applied Darwin's theory of “survival of the fittest” to sociology
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realism
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a type of art that depicts life exactly as it is seen, often resulting in books about problems in society.
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The Human Comedy
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a series of books by Balzac
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Madame Bovary
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an influential book by Flaubert about a love affair of some in the middle class
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Philosophes
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a term meaning “philosophers”, the participants of the Enlightenment, whose discussion and publication of works created the movement.
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