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176 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Martin Luther
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the founder of Lutheranism. He wrote the 95 Theses which criticized the status of the Catholic Church and gained followers throughout Europe.
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Charles V
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a Holy Roman Emperor who opposed Protestantism and was “convinced that it was his duty to maintain the political and religious unity of Western Christendom” (467). He was in control of Spain, the Netherlands, parts of Austria, parts of Italy, Bohemia, Hungary, Silesia, Lusatia, Moratia and Milan.
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Ulrich Zwingli
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a Swiss humanist who brought the Protestant Reformation to Switzerland, and who believed in the Holy Scriptures as the foundation of Christianity.
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John Calvin
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the founder of Calvinism, who was the moderator of the Company of Pastors that enforced Calvinist beliefs. He believed in a supreme God that ruled over all aspects of human life, present and future.
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Henry VIII
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king of England, and founder of the Anglican Church. Henry VIII wanted to become the supreme ruler of England, and ended up eliminating the Catholic Church in order to get divorced.
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John Fisher
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the bishop of Rochester, who was an intellectual that opposed Henry VIII's creation of the Anglican church and was beheaded because of it.
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Thomas More
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a humanist who refused to accept Henry VIII as the head of the English Church, and who was beheaded.
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Thomas Cromwell
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a minister of Henry VIII who reformed English government
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Mary Tudor
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the ruler in England after Edward VI. She persecuted Protestants and was a strict Catholic.
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Edward VI
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Henry VIII's son, who ruled for a brief period of time, but established England as a Protestant nation.
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Elizabeth I
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a Protestant queen of England who wanted people to outwardly conform to Protestantism, but allowed them to believe what they wanted. She also encourage the arts in England.
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John Knox
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a preacher who started reform in Scotland and created the Presbyterian Church of Scotland
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Christian III
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a Danish king who established Lutheranism in Norway and Denmark.
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Clement VII
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a pope that allowed Protestantism to spread by ignoring the situation in Germany and switching alliances between Charles V and Francis I. He was the last pope of the High Renaissance in Rome.
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Pope Paul III
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a humanist Pope who undertook the majority of Catholic reform, creating the Council of Trent and starting the Inquisition in the Papal States. He also made the Holy Office, that oversaw the Inquisition.
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Angela Merici
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the founder of the Ursulines, nuns that worked with wives and mothers.
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Ignatius Loyola
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the founder of the Society of Jesus, or the Jesuits. They traveled throughout the world converting and popularizing Catholicism.
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Francis I
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a French ruler who made a national royal law court in France and created a tax on land. He ruled during the Habsburg-Valois Wars and made the Concordat of Bologna in order to raise money for the wars.
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Henry III
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a French king, and one of the Henrys involved in the War of the Three Henrys. He was the successor of Charles IX but was later assassinated.
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Admiral Gaspard de Coligny
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a prominent French Calvinist whose attack prior the wedding of Margaret of Valois caused the Saint Bartholomew's Day massacre.
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Henry of Guise
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another Henry, who was a Catholic. He too was eventually assassinated.
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Henry of Navarre (Henry IV)
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the last of the Three Henrys, who married Margaret Valois and was a Protestant. He published the Edict of Nantes because he was willing to give up religious principles in order to have peace in France.
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Philip II
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a Catholic Spanish king who inherited the Netherlands as the son of Charles V. He took it upon himself to defend Europe from Protestantism.
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Duke of Alva
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a man who was sent to pacify the Calvinists rioters in the Netherlands by Philip II, but instead started the “Council of Blood”
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Mary, Queen of Scots
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a Catholic queen who tried to set up the assassination of Elizabeth I, but was caught and beheaded.
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Pope Sixtus V
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a Pope who promised to pay Philip II if he attacked England in response to the death of Mary, Queen of Scots.
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Philip III
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the son of Philip II who agreed to a truce between England and Spain
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Ferdinand of Styria
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the Catholic King of Bohemia and leader of the Catholic League. He was involved in the Bohemian phase of the Thirty Years War.
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Frederick
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elector of the Palatinate, and the opposition of Ferdinand of Styria in the Thirty Years War
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King Christian IV of Denmark
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a Protestant king who participated in the Danish phase of the Thirty Years War
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Albert of Wallenstein
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a Catholic general who led their imperial army against Christian IV in the Thirty Years War. He eventually divided the Catholics by arguing with the Catholic League.
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Gustavus Adolphus
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a Swedish Lutheran king who was involved in the Swedish phase of the Thirty Years War.
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Cardinal Richelieu
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the opponent of Adolphus and chief minister of King Louis XIII of France. He was also involved in the last phase of the war by declaring war on Spain.
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Sultan Mohammed II
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ruler of the Muslim Ottoman Turks and the person who captured Constantinople . His dominance scared Europeans.
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Prince Henry the Navigator
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a Portuguese ruler who encouraged exploration, especially to Western Africa. He ultimately created a lot of wealth for Portugal by sending people on expeditions.
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Bartholomew Diaz
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a Portuguese explorer who almost sailed around the Cape of Good Hope and helped to create trading posts in India
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Vasco da Gama
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a Portuguese explorer who went to India and brought back goods
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Pedro Alvares Cabral
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a Portuguese explorer sent by King Manual to India, but also discovered and claimed Brazil for Portugal.
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Christopher Columbus
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a Geneose explorer and a figure of controversy. With the funding of Ferdinand and Isabella, he explored and colonized many parts of the New World.
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Queen Isabella of Spain
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a Spanish ruler who was deeply religious and wanted to convert the people in the newly discovered continents
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Marco Polo
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a Venetian explorer who went to China and started a lot of trade between Europe and Asia.
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Amerigo Vespucci
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a Florentine explorer who recognized that America was on a different continent than Asia
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Ferdinand Magellan
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a Spanish explorer paid to find a good route for the spice trade to Asia. He was eventually killed, but his voyage circled the globe, proving a large,round planet.
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Hernando Cortes
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the Spanish conqueror of the Aztecs and founder of New Spain
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Montezuma
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the former king of the Aztecs, who was captured by Cortes.
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Francisco Pizarro
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-the Spanish conqueror of the Incas
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Michel de Montaigne
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a French writer who created the genre of essays and represented a general change in ideals with his skepticism.
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James I
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a ruler of England during a time period that the arts flourished, called the Jacobean era.
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William Shakespeare
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an English playwright whose work continually influences modern literature. He lived during the Elizabethan and Jacobean eras.
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Peter Paul Reubens
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a Baroque artist who created a new style which was both religious and secular.
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Johann Sebastian Bach
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a Baroque composer who revolutionized music.
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Henry IV
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a popular French ruler who brought about order in France after civil wars, religious differences and a poor economy wrecked the country. He was eventually assassinated.
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Louis XIV
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a French king who provided the foundation for absolutism. He was also known as the “Sun King”, had the longest rule in European history, established Versailles, and controlled France's political, economic, and religious state until his death.
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Maximilien de bethune (duke of Sully)
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the chief minister of Henry IV, who helped the king restore order in France.
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Cardinal Richelieu
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a minister under Louis XIII, who was effective in controlling the nobility, and created a bureaucratic system in France in which it was divided into generalities and ruled by intendants.
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King Louis XIII
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the successor of Henry IV, who ended Protest military and political independence because he thought it undermined the authority of the state.
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Cardinal Jules Mazarin
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the successor of Cardinal Richelieu and regent of Louis XIV, who attempted to continue Richelieu's work of centralizing and raising money, but was eventually caused the Fronde.
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Jean-Baptiste Lully
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a composer who represents French classicism in his style of composing.
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Marc-Antoine Carpenter
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another French classicism composer who wrote religious music
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Moliere (Jean-Baptiste Poquelin
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a playwright and actor during Louis XIV who wrote of social hypocrisy through comedic plays, and often criticized the middle class.
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Henry IV
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a popular French ruler who brought about order in France after civil wars, religious differences and a poor economy wrecked the country. He was eventually assassinated.
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Louis XIV
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a French king who provided the foundation for absolutism. He was also known as the “Sun King”, had the longest rule in European history, established Versailles, and controlled France's political, economic, and religious state until his death.
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Maximilien de bethune (duke of Sully)
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the chief minister of Henry IV, who helped the king restore order in France.
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King Louis XIII
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the successor of Henry IV, who ended Protest military and political independence because he thought it undermined the authority of the state.
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Cardinal Jules Mazarin
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the successor of Cardinal Richelieu and regent of Louis XIV, who attempted to continue Richelieu's work of centralizing and raising money, but was eventually caused the Fronde.
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Jean-Baptiste Colbert
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the controller general of finances for Louis XIV, who implemented a system of mercantilism that greatly increased the revenues of France. His goal was to create a self;sufficient nation, by discouraging imports and encouraging domestically available products.
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Moliere (Jean-Baptiste Poquelin)
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a playwright and actor during Louis XIV who wrote of social hypocrisy through comedic plays, and often criticized the middle class.
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Jean Racine
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another playwright who was highly admired by Louis XIV and an example of French classicism. Racine drew inspiration from classic works and wrote of classic themes, such as the struggle between good and evil.
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Francois le Tellier
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the secretary of state for war under Louis XIV, who created a standing army that was highly organized and overseen by the state.
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Claude le Peletier
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the successor of Colbert, who raised money to support the new armies of Louis XIV by devaluing the currency and selling privileges such as offices, titles, and tax exemptions.
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Philip of Anjou
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the grandson of Louis XIV, who inherited the Spanish crown, but whose inheritance sparked the War of the Spanish Succession.
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Gaspar de Cuzman (count-duke of Olivares)
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the administrator of Philip IV, who handled most of Spanish affairs for him. His achievements rested in his creation of different sources of income.
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Miguel de Cervantes
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a Spanish writer whose main work, Don Quixote, represented the fanciful nature of Spanish ideology.
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Elizabeth I
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an English queen whose knowledge of politics allowed her to use Parliament to her advantage
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James I
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the successor of Elizabeth I, disliked in England because his belief in divine right and Scottish ties.
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Charles I
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the son of James I and a English king suspected of bringing Roman Catholicism back to England. He eventually dissolved and ruled without Parliament, reinstating it when it was necessary to fight against the Irish rebellion. He was executed for treason at the end of the English civil war.
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William Laud
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the archbishop of Canterbury, who tried to impose Catholic rituals on all churches and wanted to start the”court of High Commons”. His efforts to change the Scottish Church resulted in riots in Scotland.
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Thomas Hobbes
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an English philosopher and political theorist who believed in a government that draws its power from the people, but still highly Machiavellian in nature.
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Oliver Cromwell
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also known as the “Protectorate”, a man who imposed military rule on England after the execution of Charles I. Cromwell had absolutist policies, although ruling through Parliament.
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Charles II
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the son of Charles I, who ruled England as the result of the Restoration of 1660, along with both houses of Parliament. Charles publicly declared his allegiance to Parliament, but secretly planned to make England Catholic again, undermining Parliament.
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William Penn
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a Quaker who was arrested for having a religious meeting that wasn't associated with Anglicanism, but was not convicted.
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James II (formerly James, duke of York)
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the heir of Charles II, who started an English revolution with his openly Catholic favoritism in government. He fled England to France after Parliament offered the crown to William and Mary of Orange.
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William and Mary of Orange
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the monarchy after the “Glorious Revolution”, who accepted the crown after agreeing to a compromise with Parliament and the Bill of Rights.
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John Locke
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a English political philosopher who believed that people had basic rights that should not be overruled by the government. He served as a representative for the English Revolution.
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George II
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the son of George I, who decided it was no longer necessary for a king to preside over cabinet meetings and weakened the crown's participation in the legislative process.
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Ferdinand II
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a Habsburg king that “drastically reduced the power of the Bohemian estates” (McKay, 569) and persecuted Protestants in order to create a Catholic Bohemia.
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Ferdinand III
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another Habsburg king that resembled absolutism by creating a bureaucracy and a standing army.
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Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent
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a sultan of the Ottoman Empire who threatened the Habsburgs by invading into European territory
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Charles VI
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a Habsburg king who authored and tried to establish the Pragmatic Sanction
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Prince Francis Rakoczy
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a Hungarian prince who successfully resisted the Habsburg empire, making Hungary a Habsburg territory but not completely under its government
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Frederick William (“The Great Elector”)
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an elector of Brandenburg who attempted to create an absolutist empire in Prussia by uniting all of his territories. His main opponents were the Junkers, but he managed to overcome them and create a single government
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Frederick William I
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an absolutist Prussian king who focused on building his military, and successfully created an absolutist government that could defend itself against other European nations
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Peter the Great
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an absolutist tsar of Russia whose reforms created an absolutist state with a much greater Western influence than before. He focused the attention of Russia towards the military and established St. Petersburg as his capital.
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Chinggis Khan
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the Mongolian leader that conquered all of Russia, slowing its development for two hundred years
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Ivan III
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the first tsar of Russia, who overthrew the Mongolians and created an independent country
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Ivan IV (“the Terrible”)
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an absolutist Russian tsar who destroyed the nobility and wished to control all aspects of Russian society
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Ivan Bolotnikov
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a Cossack leader who started a revolution against the nobility after the death of Theodore
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Nikon
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a patriarch who wish to reform Eastern Orthodox to Greek Orthodox and persecuted those who refused to accept his changes.
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Charles XII
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the Swedish king who opposed Peter the Great in the Great Northern War, winning the first battle but losing the war.
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Bartolomeo Rastrelli
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an Italian architect who designed for Elizabeth of Russia and created a new style for her palaces and St. Petersburg.
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Aristotle
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a Greek philosopher and mathematician whose conclusion of a geocentric universe with rotating crystal spheres was widely accepted until the Scientific Revolution.
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Nicolaues Copernicus
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a Polish scientist during the Scientific Revolution who believed in a heliocentric universe
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Ptolemy
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an Egyptian astronomer who believed in a geocentric universe and made complicated rules about the motion of the universe to prove it
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Tycho Brahe
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an astronomer during the Scientific Revolution who collected data and admired the ability of science to predict the movements of the solar system.
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Johannes Kepler
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an astronomer who was highly religious yet proved a geocentric solar system using the data of Brahe. His greatest achievement was three laws of planetary motion.
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Galileo Galilei
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an astronomer and mathematician whose accomplishments included the discovery of Jupiter's moons, the law of inertia, and the development of the experimental method. He was eventually tried for heresy by the Catholic Church because of his scientific developments.
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Isaac Newton
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a scientist of the Scientific Revolution who, among many other things, formulated the laws of universal gravitation, and of motion. His contribution to the revolution was the created of a simple explanation that could be applied to many areas (i.e., his ideas on motion)
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Francis Bacon
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a writer of the Scientific Revolution, who emphasized practical empirical science. He thought that data should be based on experiments.
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Rene Descartes
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a philosopher and mathematician who created the idea of Cartesian dualism and thought that all knowledge that wasn't absolutely certain should be doubted.
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Bernard de Fontenelle
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an enlightened thinker who wrote works meant to make science comprehensive to the public. He had problems believing in organized religion, and made his opinions available through his works.
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Pierre Bayle
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an enlightened thinker who opposed absolutism and was a religious skeptic.
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John Locke
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an enlightened thinker who created ideas like tabula rasa and natural rights. He had an optimistic view of human nature, but a pessimistic view of society.
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Jean le Rond d'Alembert
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a French philosophe who differentiated between the idea of “the public” and the masses, excluding “the masses” from his audience because they were numerous and uneducated. He also edited the Encyclopedia
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Baron de Montesquieu
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a French philosophe who was a skeptic, pointing out the flaws in European tradition. He opposed absolutism and sought new forms of government that would respect the rights of the people.
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Voltaire
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a French philosophe and writer, who wrote of the glories of science and admired English government, while showing disdain for the Church
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Madame du Chatelet
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a French noblewomen who sponsered and participated in the scientific Revolution, forming a close bond especially with Voltaire
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Denis Diderot
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a writer of the Enlightenment whose most prominent contribution was the assembling of the Encyclopedia
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Baron Paul d'Holbach
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a German enlightened thinker who attacked Christianity and was a proponent of atheism.
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David Hume
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a Scottish philosopher who communicated with d'Holbach and thought that knowledge should only come from experiments, and if it cannot be directly verified it must not be true.
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Jean-Jacques Rousseau
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a thinker during the Enlightenment who undermined its ideals with his idea that society was a negative influence and rationalism should be avoided. He believed in a general will of the people that should always be followed.
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Immanuel Kant
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a German philosopher of the Enlightenment who believed in freedom of the press
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Madame Geoffrin
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a hostess of a salon during the Enlightenment, who sponsered the Encyclopedia, who was an independent intellectual thinker.
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Frederick II
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a king of Prussia who was considered to be an enlightened despot because he allowed freedom of beliefs, encourage education, and reformed Prussia's justice system. However, he did not abolish the serf system of give Jews equal rights.
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Maria Theresa
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an Austrian ruler who reformed her country by limiting the influence of the pope, centralizing the state, and instituting social reforms intended to improve the life of the lower class.
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Catherine the Great
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an enlightened despot of Russia who encouraged the spread of Western culture in Russia, expanded Russia, and attempted some domestic reform before recognizing liberated serfs as a threat to her power.
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Joseph II
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an Austrian king, the son of Maria Theresa, and an enlightened ruler,who implemented many forward thinking reforms in Austria, such as religious toleration.
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Louis XV
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the successor of Louis XIV, who tried but failed to maintain absolutist authority in France.
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Jethro Tull
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the inventor of the seed-drill
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John Kay
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the inventor of the flying shuttle that made weaving more efficient.
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Adam Smith
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a founder of capitalism, who wrote The Wealth of Nations and believed in the free market.
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Thomas Jefferson
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a leader of the American Revolution and the writer of the Declaration of Independence.
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John Locke
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a thinker during the Enlightenment who inspired the French and American Revolutions with his political theory
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Montesquieu
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an Enlightenment thinker who thought that there should be checks in government
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Thomas Paine
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writer of Common Sense, an Englishman who called for the American Revolution
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George II
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the king of England during the American Revolution
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marquis de Lafayette
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the commander of the armed forces of Paris after the storming of the Bastille, and an officer during the American Revolution
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duke of Aiguillon
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a landowner who suggested rights for peasants after the uprisings in 1789
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Maximilien Robespierre
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a leader of France during its republic stage and the Reign of Terror. He was a member of the Jacobins and instituted harsh policies until his own execution.
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Edmund Burke
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a conservative English philosopher who was against the French Revolution, writing Reflections on the Revolution in France.
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Mary Wollstonecraft
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a political author that refuted the ideas of Edmund Burke in her Vindication of the Rights of Man. Her feminist writings were revolutionary in their calls for women to make something of themselves.
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Olympe de Gouges
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a female writer who worked for equal rights for women
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Napoleon Bonaparte
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an emperor of France who was part of the coup that replaced him as a ruler instead of Directory. During his reign, he instituted many social reforms, but was eventually ejected from rule by foreign enemies.
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Pope Pius VII
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the pope during the reign of Napoleon who negotiated with him for the Concordat of 1801
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Sieyes
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an abbot who argued for the rights of the third estate, especially in terms of their representation. He also encouraged Napoleon to overthrow the Directory.
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Louis XVIII
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the ruler who took over after Napoleon was thrown out. He was really weak and wasn't sucessful in stopping Napoleon from taking power the second time.
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James Hargreaves
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the inventor of the cotton spinning-jenny
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Richard Arkwright
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the inventor of the water frame
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Edmund Cartwright
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the inventor of the power loom
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James Watt
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the inventor of the most widely used steam engine, which was relatively efficient.
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Henry Cort
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inventor of the puddling furnace, which refined iron with coke, as well as rolling mills
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George Stephenson
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the inventor of the locomotive
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Thomas Malthus
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an economic thinker who thought that “population would always tend to grow faster than the food supply”
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David Ricardo
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an economist who came up with the iron law of wages and had an pessimistic view of future economies
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John Cockerill
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an owner of large factory system in Belgium that became a center of industrialization in Europe, often stealing British secrets
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Fritz Harkort
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an entrepreneur who helped industrialize Germany by setting up a technologically advanced factory
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Friedrich List
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a German writer who thought that participating in industry was a form of nationalism, because it would help the country both politically and economically
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Isaac and Emile Periere
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two banking brothers that founded the Credit Mobilier
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Friedrich Engels
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a writer who thought that the middle class was exploiting the factory workers with industrialization
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Robert Owen
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a factory owner who spoke on behalf of his workers that child labor should be limited, also the founder of the Grand National Consolidated Trades Union.
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Edwin Chadwick
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a reformer in Britain who focused mainly on the conditions of the poor and public health, believing that disease would decrease if the streets were cleaned.
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Jeremy Bentham
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a “radical philosopher” who believed that rationality was necessary to deal with public issues.
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Louis Pasteur
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a scientist who created the germ theory and pasteurization
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Joseph Lister
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a surgeon who created the antiseptic principle because he thought that aerial bacteria could increase the chance of wound infection
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Napoleon III
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a French ruler who wanted to “promote the welfare of all his subjects through government action”, specifically the remodeling of Paris
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Georges Haussmann
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a French baron who planned Paris for Napoleon III
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Sigmund Freud
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a Austrian psychologist who founded psychoanalysis, believing in a strong connection of events in childhood to the psyche of the adult
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Alfred Marshall
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an economist who thought that science was being utilized to improve industry
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Dmitri Mendeleev
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a Russian chemist who created the first Periodic Table of Elements
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Auguste Comte
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a French philosopher who believed that thoughts went through three stages and created a section of sociology in which people applied the scientific method to find greater truths
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Charles Darwin
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a scientist who came up with a theory of evolution that is accepted today, based on the theory of natural selection.
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Herbert Spencer
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a philosopher who applied the theory of natural selection to sociology, saying that it depended on the “survival of the fittest”
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Emile Zola
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a very important French realist who wrote mainly of the working class
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Honore de Balzac
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a French realist writer
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Gustave Flaubert
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a French realist writer
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George Eliot (Mary Ann Evans)
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an English realist writer
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Leo Tolstoy
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a Russian realist writer
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