Ap English Language Terms

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ad hominem argument

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from the Latin meaning "to or against the man," this is an argument that appeals to emotion rather than reason, or feeling rather than intellect.

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allegory

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the device of using character and/or story elements symbolically to represent an abstraction in addition to the literal meaning. In some allegories, for example, an author may intend the characters to personify an abstraction like hope or freedom. The allegorical meaning usually deals with moral truth or a generalization about human existence.

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alliteration

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the repetition of sound, especially initial consonant sounds in two or more neighboring words (as in "she sells sea shells"). The repetition can reinforce meaning, unify ideas, and/or supply a musical sound.

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allusion

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a direct or indirect reference to something that is presumably commonly known, such as an event, book, myth, place, or work or art. Allusions can be historical, literary, religious, or mythical. There are, of course, many possibilities, and a work may simultaneously use multiple layers.

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ambiguity

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the multiple meanings, either intentional or unintentional, of a word, phrase, sentence, or passage.

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analogy

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a similarity or comparison between two different things or the relationship between them. An analogy can explain something unfamiliar by associating it with, or pointing out its similarity to, something more familiar. Analogies can also make writing more vivid, imaginative, and intellectually engaging.

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antecedent

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The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun.

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antithesis

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A figure of speech involving a seeming contradiction of ideas, words, clauses, or sentences within a balanced grammatical structure. The resulting parallelism serves to emphasize opposition of ideas. The familiar phrase "Man proposes, God disposes" is an example of antithesis, as is John Dryden's description "Too black for heaven, and yet too white for hell."

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aphorism

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a terse statement of known authorship that expresses a general truth or moral principle. An aphorism can be a memorable summation of the author's point.

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apostrophe

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a figure of speech that directly addresses an absent of imaginary person or personified abstraction, such as liberty or love. The effect may add familiarity or emotional intensity. William Wordsworth addresses John Milton as he writes, "Milton, thou shouldst be living at this hour: England hath need of thee."

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atmosphere

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the emotional mood created by the entirety of a literary work, established partly by the setting and partly by the author's choice of objects that are described. Even such elements as a description of the weather can contribute to the atmosphere. Frequently, atmosphere foreshadows events.

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caricature

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a representation, especially pictorial or literary, in which the subject's distinctive features or peculiarities are deliberately exaggerated to produce a comic or grotesque effect. Sometimes caricature can be so exaggerated that i becomes a grotesque imitation or misrepresentation. Synonymous words include burlesque, parody, travesty, satire, lampoon.

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chiasmus

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a figure of speech based on inverted parallelism. It is a rhetorical figure in which two clauses are related to each other through a reversal of terms. The purpose is usually to make a larger point or to provide balance or order.

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clause

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a grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb. An independent, or main, clause expresses of complete thought can can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent, or subordinate, clause cannot stand alone as a sentence and must be accompanied by an independent clause.

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colloquialism

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slang or informality in speech or writing. Not generally acceptable for formal writing, colloquialisms give work a conversational, familiar tone. Colloquial expressions in writing include local or regional dialects.

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conceit

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a fanciful expression, usually in the form of an extended metaphor or surprising analogy between seemingly dissimilar objects. A conceit displays intellectual cleverness due to the unusual comparison being made.

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connotation

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the non literal, associative meaning of a word; the implied suggested meaning. Connotations may involve ideas, emotions, or attitudes.

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denotation

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the strict, literal, dictionary definition of a word, devoid of any emotion, attitude, or color

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diction

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related to style, diction refers to the writer's word choices, especially with regard to their correctness, clearness, or effectiveness. Diction, combined with syntax, figurative language, literary devices, and so on, creates an author's style.

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didactic

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From Greek, literary means "instructive." Didactic works have the primary aim of teaching or instructing, especially the teaching of moral or ethical principles.

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euphamism

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From the Greek for "good speech," euphemisms are a more agreeable or less offensive substitute for generally unpleasant words or concepts. The euphemism may be used to adhere to standards of social or political correctness, or to add humor or ironic understatement.

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extended metaphor

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A metaphor developed at great length, occurring frequently in or throughout a work

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figurative language

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Writing or speech that is not intended to carry literal meaning and is usually meant to be imaginative and vivid.

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figure of speech

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A device used to produce figurative language. Many compare dissimilar things. Figures of speech include, for example, apostrophe, hyperbole, irony, metaphor, metonymy, oxymoron, paradox, personification, simile, synecdoche, and understatement.

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generic conventions

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This term describes traditions for each genre. These conventions help to define each genre; for example, they differentiate between an essay and journalistic writing or an autobiography and political writing.

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genre

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The major category into which a literary work fits. The basic divisions of literature are prose, poetry, and drama. However, "genre" is a flexible term; within these broad boundaries exist many subdivisions that are often called genres themselves.

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homily

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This term literally means "sermon," but more informally, it can include any serious talk, speech, or lecture involving moral or spiritual advice.

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hyperbole

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A figure of speech using deliberate exaggeration or overstatement. Hyperboles often have a comic effect; however, a serious effect is also possible. Often, hyperbole produces irony at the same time.

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imagery

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The sensory details or figurative language used to describe, arouse emotion, or represent abstraction. On a physical level, imagery used terms related to the five senses; we refer to visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, or olfactory imagery. On a broader and deeper level, however, one image can image can represent more than one thing. An author, therefore, may use complex imagery while simultaneously employing other figures of speech, especially metaphor and simile. In addition, this term can apply to the total of all the images in a work.

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inference/infer

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To draw a reasonable conclusion from the information presented. When a multiple-choice question asks for an inference to be drawn from the passage, the most direct, most reasonable inference is the safest answer choice.

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invective

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An emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive language

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irony/ironic

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The contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really meant; the difference between what appears to be and what actually is true. Irony is used for many reasons, but frequently, it's used to create poignancy or humor.

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Verbal irony

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the words literally state the opposite of the writer's true meaning

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Situational irony

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events turn out the opposite of what was expected. What the characters and readers think ought to happen does not actually happen.

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dramatic irony

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facts or events are unknown to a character in a play or piece of fiction but known to the reader, audience, or other characters in the work.

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juxtaposition

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Placing dissimilar items, descriptions, or ideas close together or sie by side, especially for comparison or contrast.

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loose sentence

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A type of sentence in which the main idea comes first, fowlled by dependent grammatical units such as phrases and clauses. If a period were placed at the end of the independent clause, the clause would be a complete sentence. A work containing many loose sentences often seems informal, relaxed, and conversational.

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metaphor

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A figure of speech using implied comparison of seemingly unlike things or the substitution of one of the other, suggesting some similarity. Metaphorical language makes writing more vivid, imaginative, thought provoking, and meaningful.

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metonymy

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A term from the Greek meaning "changed label" or "substitute name." metonymy is a figure of speech in which the name of one object is substituted for that of another closely associated with it. The White House declared rather than the President declared.

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mood

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This term has two technical meanings in English writing. The first meaning is grammatical and deals with verbal units and a speaker's attitude. The indicative mood is used only for factual sentence. The subjunctive mood is used for a doubtful or conditional attitude. The imperative mood is used for commands. The second meaning of mood is literary, meaning the prevailing atmosphere or emotional aura of a work. Setting, tone, and events can affect the mood. In this usage, mood is similar to tone and atmosphere.

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narrative

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The telling of a sotry or an account of an event or series of evetns.

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onomatopoeia

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A figure of speech in which natural sounds are imitated in the sounds of words.

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oxymoron

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From the Greek for "pointedly foolish," and oxymoron is a figure of speech wherein the author groups apparently contradictory terms to suggest a paradox.

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paradox

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A statement that appears to be self-contradictory or opposed to common sense, but upon closer inspection contains some degree of truth or validity.

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parallelism

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The grammatical or rhetorical framing of words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs to give structural similarity. This can involve, but is not limited to, repetition of grammatical elements such as a preposition or verbal phrase. Parallelism frequently acts as a organizing force to attract the reader's attention, add emphasis and organization, or simply provide a pleasing, musical rhythm.

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parody

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A work that closely imitates the style or content of another with the specific aim of comic effect and/or ridicule. As comedy, parody distorts or exaggerates distinctive features of the original. As ridicule, it mimics the work by repeating and borrowing words, phrases, or characteristics in order to illuminate weaknesses in the original. Well-written parody offers insight into the original, but poorly written parody offers only ineffectual imitation.

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pedantic

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An adjective that describes words, phrases, or general tone that is overly scholarly, academic, or bookish.

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periodic sentence

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A sentence that presents its central meaning in a main clause at the end. This independent clause is preceded by a phrase or clause that cannot stand alone. The effect of a periodic sentence is to add emphasis and structural variety.

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personification

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a figure of speech in which the author presents or describes concepts, animals, or inanimate objects by endowing them with human attributes or emotions. Personification is used to make these abstractions, animals, or objects appear more vivid to the reader.

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Point of View

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The perspective from which a story is told.

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First-person

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Tells the story with the first person "I" and is a character in the story.

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Third-person omniscient

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The narrator, with god-like knowledge, presents the thoughts and actions of any or all character. This all-knowing narrator can reveal what each character feels and thinks at any given moment.

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Third-person limited omniscient

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The narrator presents the thoughts of only one character, and only the actions of all remaining characters.

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Predicate adjectives

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One type of subject complement - an adjective, group of adjectives, or adjective clause that follows a linking verb. It is in the predicate of the sentence, and modifies or describes the sentence.

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Predicate nominative

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A second type of subject complement - a noun, group on nouns, or noun clause that renames the subject. It, like the predicate adjective, follows a linking verb and is located in the predicate of the sentence.

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prose

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One of the major divisions of genre, "prose" refers to fiction and nonfiction, including all its forms, because they are written in ordinary language and most closely resemble everyday speech.

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repition

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The duplication, either exact or approximate, of any element of language, such as a sound, word, phrase, clause, sentence, or grammatical pattern. When repetition is poorly done, it bores, but when it is well done, it links and emphasizes ideas while allowing the reader the comfort of recognizing something familiar.

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rhetoric

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From the Greek for "orator," this term describes the principles governing the art of writing effectively, eloquently, and persuasively.

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rhetorical appeal

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The persuasive device by which a writer tries to sway the audience's attention and response to any given work.

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Logos

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The rhetorical appeal that employs logical reasoning, combining a clear idea with well-thought-out and appropriate examples and details. These supports are logically presented and rationally reach the writer's conclusion.

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Ethos

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This rhetorical appeal establishes credibility in the speaker. Since by definition "ethos" means the common attitudes, beliefs, and characteristics of a group or time period, this appeal sets up believability in the writer. He or she is perceived as someone who can be trusted and is concerned with the reader's best interests.

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Pathos

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This rhetorical appeal plays on the reader's emotions and interests. A sympathetic audience is more likely to accept a writer's assertions, so this appeal draws upon that understanding and used it so the writer's advantage.

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rhetorical modes

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This flexible term describes the variety, the conventions, and the purposes of the major kinds of writing. Sometimes referred to as modes of discourse (4 types).

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Expository writing

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A rhetorical mode whose purpose is to explain and analyze information by presenting an idea, relevant evidence, and appropriate discussion.

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Argumentation

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A rhetorical mode whose purpose is to prove the validity of an idea, or a point of view, by presenting sound reasoning, thoughtful discussion, and insightful argument that thoroughly convince the reader. Persuasive writing is a type of argumentation having the additional aim of urging some form of action.

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Description

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A rhetorical mode whose purpose is to re-create, invent, or visually present a person, place, event, or action so that the reader can picture that being described. Sometimes an author engages all five senses in description; good description writing can be sensuous and picturesque. Description may be straightforward and objective or highly emotional and subjective.

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Narration

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A rhetorical mode whose purpose is to tell a story or narrate an event or series of events. This writing mode frequently uses the tools of descriptive writing.

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rhetorical question

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a question that is asked merely for effect and does not expect a reply. The answer is assumed.

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sarcasm

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From the Greek meaning "to tear flesh," sarcasm involves bitter, caustic language that is meant to hurt or ridicule someone or something. It may use irony as a device, but not all ironic statements are sarcastic. When well done, sarcasm can be witty and insightful; when poorly done it's simply cruel.