Ap Bio Test 3

Front 1

Fermentation

Back 1

A catabolic process where sugars are partially degraded without the use of oxygen

Front 2

Cellular respiration

Back 2

The most prevalent and efficient catabolic pathway; gluocose and oxygen are broken down to CO2 and H2O to produce energy; ∆G of about -686 kcal/mol; a redox reaction wherein glucose is oxidized to produce CO2 and oxygen is reduced to produce H2O

Front 3

Redox reaction

Back 3

A chemical reaction where an electron is transferred from one reactant to another

Front 4

Oxidation

Back 4

In a redox reaction, where an atom loses electrons, partially or wholly, in order to donate them to another one

Front 5

Reduction

Back 5

In redox, where an atom gains electrons partially or wholly (think of it reducing the overall charge)

Front 6

Reducing agent

Back 6

The atom/molecule that undergoes oxidation to reduce another reactant

Front 7

Oxidizing agent

Back 7

The atom/molecule that accepts an electron from the reducing agent

Front 8

NAD+

Back 8

The first electron acceptor in the electron transport chain thing in cellular respiration, yeah! It's an oxidizing agent

Front 9

Dehydrogenases

Back 9

Remove a pair of hydrogen atoms from; adds one full hydrogen atom to NAD+ and then adds one electron; releases the other hydrogen nucleus as H+

Front 10

Electron transport chain

Back 10

Transports electrons from one substance to another to control reactions so an organism can effectively use all its energy

Front 11

Glycolysis

Back 11

Breakdown of sugar into 2 pyruvate; occurs in energy investment (2 ATP consumed) and energy payoff (4 ATP released, 2 NADH released, 2 H2O released)

Front 12

Citric acid cycle

Back 12

Pyruvate is changed to acetyl CoA, releasing CO2 in the process, and NAD+ is changed to NADH; in the process, 3 CO2 are released, 4 NAD+ are reduced to NADH, 1 ATP is produced, and 1 FAD is changed to FADH2

Front 13

Oxidative phosphorylation

Back 13

Phosphorylation that occurs when an inorganic phosphate is added to ADP; occurs in the third step of cell respiration, where energy released at each step of the electron transport chain is used to make ATP

Front 14

Substrate-level phosphorylation

Back 14

Where an enzyme transfers a phosphate group from a substrate to ADP, forming ATP; this occurs in glycolysis and the citric acid cycle

Front 15

Acetyl CoA

Back 15

Pyruvate is taken into the mitochondrion after glycolysis and via the removal of a CO2 and transfer of hydrogen to an NADH transformed into Acetyl CoA to begin the citric acid cycle

Front 16

GTP

Back 16

In one of the steps of the citric acid cycle GTP is used to synthesize ATP

Front 17

Flavoprotein

Back 17

A type of protein with flavin mononucleotide; the first type of protein an electron encounters in the electron transport chain of cell respiration / oxidative phosphorylation

Front 18

Cytochrome

Back 18

A type of protein with a heme group (has iron) in it; makes up many of the electron carriers in the cell respiration electron transport chain

Front 19

ATP synthase

Back 19

A protein that uses the energy of H+ ions in the intermembrane space, produced through from the electron transport chain, diffusing down their electrochemical gradient to the mitochondrial matrix to make ATP

Front 20

Rotor

Back 20

Part of the ATP synthase molecule; spins as H+ flows through the molecule

Front 21

Stator

Back 21

Anchors ATP synthase in the inner membrane and holds the knob in place

Front 22

Rod

Back 22

Spins in time with the rotor and activates catalytic sites in the knob

Front 23

Knob

Back 23

Held stationary by the stator, it catalyzes ADP + P -> ATP reactions

Front 24

Chemiosmosis

Back 24

The process in which the H+ ions flowing down their electrochemical gradient produces ATP using ATP synthase

Front 25

Proton-motive force

Back 25

Force produced by H+ ions' gradient

Front 26

Aerobic

Back 26

Environment that contains oxygen

Front 27

Anaerobic

Back 27

Without oxygen

Front 28

Alcohol fermentation

Back 28

Pyruvate is converted to ethanol and releases 2 ATP; an intermediate molecule, acetaldehyde, accepts electrons from NADH produced in glycolysis, creating a cycle

Front 29

Lactic acid fermentation

Back 29

Pyruvate from glycolysis accepts NADH and changes into lactate

Front 30

Phosphofructokinase

Back 30

Engages in feedback inhibition; stimulated by AMP and inhibited by ATP

Front 31

Photosynthesis

Back 31

The process of the conversion of sunlight into chemical energy (an anabolic pathway); learn more by continuing through the flashcards; 6CO2 + 12H2O -> C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2

Front 32

Autotrophs

Back 32

Get energy primarily without consuming anything from other organisms; "producers" of the biosphere

Front 33

Photoautotrophs

Back 33

Autotrophs that use sunlight as their primary source of energy

Front 34

Heterotrophs

Back 34

Get energy from other organisms' compounds; they can't make their own; biosphere's consumers

Front 35

Chlorophyll

Back 35

A green pigment that drives the synthesis of organic molecules in the chloroplast; what makes plants' leaves green

Front 36

Mesophyll

Back 36

The tissue in the inside of plant leaves; the main location of chloroplasts and the source of the green color of plant leaves

Front 37

Stomata

Back 37

Pores that let in CO2 and let out O2; also let out H2O in some cases, like on hot, dry days

Front 38

Stroma

Back 38

Fluid inside the chloroplasts but outside the thylakoid

Front 39

Thylakoids

Back 39

Membranous sacs that separate the thylakoid space from the outside world; the site of the first stage of photosynthesis, the light reactions

Front 40

Light reactions

Back 40

The first stage of photosynthesis, where light is converted to chemical energy for the first time; outputs ATP and NADPH; also has a little electron transport chain in there

Front 41

Calvin cycle

Back 41

Takes in CO2 and outputs H2O and G3P, a simple sugar with an attached phosphate, ready to be assembled into glucose

Front 42

NADP+

Back 42

Takes electrons; its transfer to NADPH is the primary output of light reactions, and it transfers electrons to the Calvin cycle, LOL, yeah, haha.

Front 43

Photophosphorylation

Back 43

When ATP is generated through the light reactions, by using chemiosmosis from the electron transport chain; basically, the photosynthesis version of oxidative phosphorylation

Front 44

Carbon fixation

Back 44

The first stage of the Calvin cycle, where CO2 is incorporated into RuBP to start the cycle (see, cause the carbon is fixed to it)

Front 45

Wavelength

Back 45

The distance between two points of equal phase in a wave

Front 46

Electromagnetic spectrum

Back 46

The entire spectrum of wavelengths of electromagnetic waves; visible light only occupies a tiny range of this spectrum

Front 47

Visible light

Back 47

Light that's visible; ranges from 380 nm wavelength to 750 nm

Front 48

Photons

Back 48

A little particle made of electromagnetic energy (hah!)

Front 49

Spectrophotometer

Back 49

An apparatus used to show what kinds of light stuff absorbs best; shines different-colored light through things and sees what is transmitted through

Front 50

Absorption spectrum

Back 50

A graph plotting wavelength vs. a substance's ability to absorb that wavelength of light

Front 51

Chlorophyll a

Back 51

Red and violet work the best

Front 52

Action spectrum

Back 52

Relative effectiveness of different wavelengths at driving photosynthesis

Front 53

Chlorophyll b

Back 53

An accessory pigment of photosynthesis that also functions in photosynthesis

Front 54

Carotenoids

Back 54

Hydrocarbon accessory pigments that absorb violet and blue-green light and reflect red and yellow; dissipate other, less essential colors of light

Front 55

Photosystem

Back 55

A reaction center surrounded by light harvesting complexes; there are 2 types of these in the light reaction stage of photosynthesis

Front 56

Light-harvesting complex

Back 56

Part of a photosystem; these contain pigment molecules bound to proteins (mostly chlorophyll) that bounce light energy around within the chlorophyll until it reaches the reaction center

Front 57

Reaction center

Back 57

Protein complex including two specialized chlorophyll a molecules and the primary electron acceptor; two chlorophyll a molecules boost their electrons to the primary electron receptor when they absorb light

Front 58

Primary electron acceptor

Back 58

Receives electrons from specialized chlorophyll a and then send them on their journey through the electron transport chain

Front 59

Photosystem II

Back 59

Takes in water molecules and takes their electrons, which are transferred to chlorophyll a; the first photosystem encountered in the light reaction stage of photosynthesis; contains P680 (absorbs 680 nm light best)

Front 60

Photosystem I

Back 60

The second photosystem involved in the light reaction stage; this one has P700 (absorbs 700 nm light best)

Front 61

Noncyclic electron flow

Back 61

Electrons flow through PS I to NADP+ reductase, where they reduce NADP+ to NADPH; produces just one ATP

Front 62

Cyclic electron flow

Back 62

When electrons, after reaching PS II, are knocked up in free energy and go back through Fd to the cytochrome complex, and cycle back through PS I, producing infinite ATP as long as the cycle is kept going

Front 63

G3P (glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate)

Back 63

The sugar that is produced by the Calvin cycle; it's not glucose

Front 64

Rubisco

Back 64

The slut; used to affix CO2 to RuBP (also called RuBP carboxylase); the most abundant protein on Earth

Front 65

Reduction (Calvin cycle)

Back 65

The second stage of the Calvin cycle, in which NADPH reduces stuff until it turns into G3P

Front 66

Regeneration of the CO2 acceptor

Back 66

A mouthful; also the last stage of the Calvin cycle, in which the 5 remaining G3P's after one is spit out transform magically into RuBP again (that's the CO2 acceptor, bee-tee-dubs)

Front 67

C3 plants

Back 67

Normal fail plants where rubisco adds CO2 to RuBP

Front 68

Photorespiration

Back 68

Where rubisco uses O2 instead of CO2; it consumes O2 and produces CO2, but generates no ATP and is a terrible waste; it sucks and is only there because it was in the past; sound familiar?; that's because it is; it's sort of like the whole "right to bear arms" part of the Constitution

Front 69

C4 plants

Back 69

CO2 fixation takes place in mesophyll cells, and then CO2 is pumped into bundle-sheath cells; since the initial carbon fixation is with a more scrupulous enzyme (PEP carboxylase), photorespiration doesn't happen as often, but it does consume an additional ATP

Front 70

CAM plants

Back 70

CAM stands for "crassulacean acid metabolism"; CO2 is taken in during night-time, where it's cooler and the plant doesn't lose as much water, and stored as organic acids; it is converted to CO2 and used later, during the day, so that no photorespiration occurs

Front 71

Signal transduction pathway

Back 71

A pathway wherein a signal is received by a receptor, and it produces a response

Front 72

Local regulators

Back 72

Signals that travel only short distances to cells and influence cells in their vicinity

Front 73

Growth factors

Back 73

Local regulators that stimulate cell growth

Front 74

Paracrine signaling

Back 74

Signaling that occurs locally, over short distances, with local regulators

Front 75

Synaptic signaling

Back 75

Occurs in animal nervous systems, where signals move across a synapse from one nerve to the next; works with neurotransmitters

Front 76

Hormonal signaling

Back 76

Long-distance signaling with... well, hormones; also called endocrine signaling; transmitted via circulatory system

Front 77

Epinephrine

Back 77

Signal that stimulates a breakdown of glycogen, releasing energy

Front 78

Reception

Back 78

Initial bondage (heheheh) of a signal to a receptor that causes a change in the conformation of the receptor

Front 79

Transduction

Back 79

Transforms the signal to a form that the cell can understand and that can produce a response

Front 80

Reponse

Back 80

Wherein a cell actually does something in response to the signal

Front 81

Ligand

Back 81

A molecule that specifically binds to a larger molecule; signal molecules act as these

Front 82

Intracellular receptor

Back 82

A receptor located inside a cell (is this really that hard to explain?)

Front 83

G-protein-linked-receptor

Back 83

These attract a G protein, which then saunters over and says, "whaddya want?" The G protein does not respond, but instead attaches a GTP to the G protein, displacing the GDP that was there previously. The G protein then proceeds to say, "Wow, this is just getting too kinky. I'm outta here," and rushes over to a nearby enzyme, which gets all activated. After that it goes back to its inactive state, and the second protein activates a cellular response.

Front 84

Receptor tyrosine kinase

Back 84

Signal proteins cause two of these to attract each other, forming a dimer; the tyrosines attached to them then get attached phosphate groups, which attract relay proteins and cause a cellular response

Front 85

Protein kinase

Back 85

An enzyme that attaches a phosphate group to another protein; these play an important role in transduction

Front 86

Protein phosphatases

Back 86

Enzymes that remove phosphate from proteins; essentially "reset" the signal transduction pathway

Front 87

Second messengers

Back 87

A small messenger that undergoes diffusion and activates other proteins

Front 88

Scaffolding protein

Back 88

Large relay proteins that activate several protein kinases at once

Front 89

Cell division

Back 89

The division of cells, to reproduce (for unicellular organisms), or to grow, develop, and maintain... life (for multicellular organisms)

Front 90

Cell cycle

Back 90

The cycle of cell growth and division (well, duh)

Front 91

Genome

Back 91

All the genetic material of an organism, and all its genetic information

Front 92

Chromosome

Back 92

A little package of DNA

Front 93

Somatic cell

Back 93

A cell with two sets of chromosomes, one from each parent

Front 94

Gamete

Back 94

A cell with only one set of chromosomes; these are used in reproduction

Front 95

Chromatin

Back 95

A complex of DNA and some proteins; forms eukaryotic chromosomes; one chromosome contains one long, long, long, long DNA molecule with a 100-a few thousand genes

Front 96

Sister chromatids

Back 96

Two identical chromosomes connected after DNA duplication; they are copies of each other; the two sister chromatids look like an X

Front 97

Centromere

Back 97

The "waist" of the chromatid, where the mitotic spindle connects; the center of the X, where the two chromatids are most closely attached

Front 98

Mitosis

Back 98

The division of the nucleus; consists of PPMAT (prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase)

Front 99

Cytokinesis

Back 99

The division of the cytoplasm, where either 1. the plasma membrane is pinched by a closing circle of microfilaments (animal cells) or 2. A plate of stuff forms from the Golgi apparatus and makes a new cell wall

Front 100

Meiosis

Back 100

Creates gametes; ends up with two cells that have only 1/2 the full DNA

Front 101

Mitotic phase

Back 101

Last phase of the cell cycle, which includes mitosis and cytosis

Front 102

Interphase

Back 102

The entire cell cycle, except for the mitotic phase

Front 103

G1 phase

Back 103

Gap 1; the first growth phase, where a cell recovers from division

Front 104

S phase

Back 104

"Synthesis"; DNA is replicated in this phase

Front 105

G2 phase

Back 105

Where the cell continues growth in preparation for cell division

Front 106

Prophase

Back 106

Chromatin fibers become more tightly coiled; nucleoli disappear; sister chromatids appear; mitotic spindle begins to form; centrosomes move away from each other

Front 107

Prometaphase

Back 107

Nuclear envelope fragments; chromosomes become more dense; microtubules extend toward cell's center (mitotic spindle); kinetochores form; some microtubules attach to kinetochores; non-kinetochore microtubules interact with other end of spindle

Front 108

Metaphase

Back 108

Chromosomes line up along metaphase plate; chromatids' kinetochores attached to microtubules

Front 109

Anaphase

Back 109

Sister chromatids part and are dragged toward their respective centrosomes as kinetochore microtubules shorten; non-kinetochore microtubules lengthen to elongate cell

Front 110

Telophase

Back 110

New nuclei form; chromosomes become less condensed; mitosis completed

Front 111

Mitotic spindle

Back 111

Fibers made from microtubules and other proteins that control chromosomes and cell shape during mitosis; constructed from other microtubules that are removed during mitosis

Front 112

Centrosomes

Back 112

Nonmembranous organelle that organizes microtubules throughout cell cycle; centrosomes move around in cell division

Front 113

Aster

Back 113

Radial array of microtubules that extends from centrosome; basically useless

Front 114

Kinetochore

Back 114

A bundle of proteins at the centromere of each pair of sister chromatids

Front 115

Metaphase plate

Back 115

The place where all the sister chromatids go during metaphase

Front 116

Cleavage

Back 116

The process by which cytokinesis occurs in animal cells

Front 117

Cleavage furrow

Back 117

During cleavage, the little depression that appears in the cell's surface near the metaphase plate

Front 118

Cell plate

Back 118

During cytokinesis on plant cells a cell plate forms out of vesicles from the Golgi apparatus carrying cell wall materials; a cell wall grows from this

Front 119

Origin of replication

Back 119

In binary fission, the place where the DNA begins to replicate; the origin moves to opposite ends in both cells and then the cells divide

Front 120

Dinoflagellates

Back 120

The nucleus divides in a manner similar to binary fission but stays intact; meanwhile microtubules keep the nucleus oriented in the center of the cell

Front 121

Diatoms

Back 121

Where a process similar to today's mitosis occurs in the nucleus alone

Front 122

Cell cycle control system

Back 122

A system of checkpoints for controlling the cell cycle and its development

Front 123

Checkpoint

Back 123

A point where the cell cycle stops and waits for a certain trigger

Front 124

G0 phase

Back 124

The phase after G1 but before the checkpoint for G1 is passed

Front 125

Cyclin

Back 125

Proteins that activate kinases responsible for continuing the cell cycle at checkpoints; called that for their cyclically fluctuating concentrations

Front 126

Cyclin-dependent kinases

Back 126

Kinases that depend on cyclins (what else?) and are used to drive the cell cycle

Front 127

MPF

Back 127

Triggers the cells' progression past the G2 checkpoint in the M phase; degrades its cyclin after it's done with it like Mitt Romney with Bain Capital (I think? I'm actually not sure)

Front 128

Growth factor

Back 128

A factor that stimulates cells to divide

Front 129

Density-dependent inhibition

Back 129

Cells will only form in layers; they will fill holes but won't overdivide and form too many cells; if they do it's called cancer mate might wanna get that checked out

Front 130

Anchorage dependence

Back 130

Wherein cells have to be anchored to something to divide, otherwise they just won't divide

Front 131

Transformation

Back 131

The process wherein cells turn cancerous *gasp*

Front 132

Benign tumor

Back 132

A tumor that just sits there and does nothing

Front 133

Malignant tumor

Back 133

A tumor that's invasive enough to impair bodily functions

Front 134

Metastasis

Back 134

Wherein cancerous cells migrate to a location other than their original one