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324 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Pathogen
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A disease causing microorganism
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Routes of entry (6)
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Inoculation, incision, ingestion, inhalation, via placenta and breast milk
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Non specific defence
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Born with, provide immediate protect but don't get more efficient
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Surface defence
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Skin, cilia, mucous membranes
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Mucous membranes
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Secrete mucous, traps microbes in its sticky surface
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Skin
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Sebum and sweat secreted have slight antifungal and antibacterial functions
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Cilia
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Inhaled microbes are filtered and swept to mucus membrane where they are trapped and swallowed or coughed up
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Phagocytosis
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Mon specific process of cell eating
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Phagocytic cells
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Neutrophils and macrophages
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Neutrophils
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Relaxes chemical chemoattractants that attract other phagocytic cells
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Macrophages
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Link between specific and non specific defence. They ingest all microbes and act as antigen presenting cells. Presenting the microbe on their surface to stimulate T lymphocytes and activate an immune response
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Natural antimicrobial substances
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hydrochloric acid, lysozyme, saliva, non specific antibodies, interferon and complement
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Hydrochloric acid
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Present in gastric juice, kills majority of injected microbes
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Lysozyme
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Found in tears, antibacterial
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Non specific antibodies
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Present in nasal secretions and saliva. Inactivate bacteria
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Interferon
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Produced by T lymphocytes and cells that have been invaded by microbes. Prevent reproduction and spread
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Complement
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System of 20 proteins travelling in the blood. Activated by the binding of an antigen and antibody. Bind to and destroy these cells and attract phagocytic cells
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Inflammation
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A response to tissue damage the limits the spread of further damage, removes and clears debris and promotes healing. Causes an immune response
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Inflammation process
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Blood vessels dilate, capillaries leak, chemotaxis attract neutrophils
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Blood vessels dilate
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More oxygen and nutrient to site due to increased blood flow and activates phagocytes
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Capillaries leak
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Brings defence chemicals and antibodies. Dilute toxins a d fibrin mesh limits spread of toxins
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Chemotaxis
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Clear debris, neutrophils
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Inflammatory signs
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Heat, redness, pain, fever, swelling, pus
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Specific immune defences
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T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes
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T lymphocytes
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Cell mediated immunity. Activated by macrophages who present antigen to them
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T cells
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Memory, killer, suppressor, helper
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Memory T cells
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Long lived, provide immunity by responding to the same antigen at a faster and more efficient way next time.
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Killer T cells
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Inactivate and cells carrying the presented antigen by attaching to them and releasing toxins that destroy them
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Helper T cells
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Essential for both cell mediated and antibody mediated immunity. ensure T lymphocyte numbers remain high
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Suppressor T cells
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Turn of activated B and T lymphocytes once the danger has passed
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B lymphocytes
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Antibody mediated immunity. With the help of T lymphocytes, they recognise and bind to antigens and then divide into plasma and memory B cells
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Plasma
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Secretes antigen that finds and binds to specific antibodies and neutralises them, activates complement or labels them to macrophages and T lymphocytes
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Memory B cells
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Remain in the body after attack and provide a quicker response next time by dividing into plasma cells
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Acquired immunity
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Can be active of passive
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Passive acquired immunity
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Natural: from mother through placenta or milk
Artificial: ready made antibodies injected Do not get more efficient and can be short lived |
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Active acquired immunity
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Natural: coming in contact with antigen
Artificial: dead or weakened antigen injected Causes an immune response, long lived |
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Pyrexia
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Causes the hypothalamus to reset above 37'C. stops spread and activates phagocytosis and tissue repair
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Lymphatic system
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Lymph vessels and lymph nodes
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Lymph vessels
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Drain excess tissue fluid and return blood to site
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Lymph nodes
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Filter out pathogens, activate lymphocytes. B and T lymphocytes produced here
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Antibody structure
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Y shaped proteins and molecule that move freely in the blood, produced by plasma from B lymphocytes
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Nucleus
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Largest organelle. contains bodies genetic material. Responsible for manufacturing and assembling ribosomes
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Mitochondria
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Powerhouse of cell, involved in aerobic respiration (ATP)
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Ribosomes
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Tiny granules composed of RNA and protein. Synthesize proteins from amino acids. Also found on rough ER where proteins are made for export
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Smooth ER
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Synthesize lipids and steroid hormones. Some lipids used to repair and replace cell and organelle membranes
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Rough ER
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Studded with ribosomes. Proteins made here and transported
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Golgi apparatus
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Proteins are moved here from ER and stored in testicles called secretory glands. when needed they are transported
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Lysosome
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Type of secretory vessel formed by Golgi apparatus. Contain enzymes which break down fragments of organelle and large molecules that are recycles or removed.
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Cytoskeleton
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Microfilaments, microtubules, centrosomes
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Microfilaments
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Give cell its shape
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Microtubules
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Move organelle and chromosomes during cell division
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Centrosomes
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Directs organisation lf microtubules
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DNA protein synthesis
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Transcription and translation.
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Transcription
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Inside the nucleus the DNA is copied as a single strand of mRNA. This leaves the nucleus and enters the cytoplasm
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Translation
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In the cytoplasm the mRNA is read by ribosomes in triplets called codons, tRNA mirrors mRNA and adds amino acids through peptide bonds creating proteins. Stop codon releases new protein,
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Mitosis
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One cell division resulting in two identical chromatids. Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase cytokinesis
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Meiosis
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Two cell divisions, DNA replicates but genes are exchanged resulting in non identical chromatids. Prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I, telophase I cytokinesis, Prophase II, Metaphase II, anaphase II, telophase II, cytokinesis
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Prophase
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Chromatids are joined by centromere. Two centrioles appear and move to cell ends and miotic spindles appear. Nuclear membrane disappears
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Metaphase
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Centrioles attaches to one side of centromere and align chromatids in cell centre
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Anaphase
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Centromere separate and one of each sister chromatids (now chromosome) migrate to cell end
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Telophase
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Spindles disappear, chromosomes uncoil and nuclear envelope reforms
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Cytokinesis
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The cell splits in two, each with own genetic material and organelles
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Mitosis and mitosis differences
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Divisions
No. Daughter cells Function |
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Passive transport
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Doesn't use energy. Diffusion and osmosis
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Diffusion
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Move down in concentration
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Osmosis
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The movement of water to equalise concentrations
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Active transport
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Uses ATP to increase concentrations. Involves specialised protein carrier molecules.
Sodium potassium pump |
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Sodium potassium pump
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Maintains unequal concentrations of sodium (Na+) outside and potassium (K+) inside ions on either side of the membrane.
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Tissues
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Epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous
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Epithelial
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Covers body, lines cavities, hollow organs and tubes
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Connective
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Binding and structural support. Protection, transport and insulation
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Muscle
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Provides movement, contracts and relaxes
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Nervous
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Excitable cells - neurons and nonexcitable cells - glial cells
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Epidermis
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Superficial layer of skin. No blood or lymph vessels or nerve endings, provides with oxygen and nutrients from the dermis. Keratinised stratified squamous epithelium
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Keratinised, stratified squamous epithelium
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Flat, thin, non nucleated, dead cells. Tough and waterproof. Prevents underlying cells drying out,
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Germative layer
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Replace epithelium, cells change as they are pushed to the surface
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Melanocytes
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Produce melanin
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Dermis
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Tough, elastic layer made from connective tissue, collagen and elastic fibres. Contains blood vessels, lymph vessels, nerve endings, sweat glands and ducts, hairs and sebaceous glands
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Skin functions
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Waterproof layer; barrier against microbes, chemicals, physical agents and dehydration. Langerhans (immune cells) nerve endings; reflex action and melanin
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Sweat glands
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Increased temp cause secretion onto surface, evaporation cools the body
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High body temperature (skin)
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Arterioles dilate and more blood enters capillary network in skin = skin warm and pink
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Low body temperature (skin)
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Arterioles constrict and blood flow is educe to conserve heat = skin pale and cold
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Vitamin D formation
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UltraViolet sunrays convert 7 dehydrocholesterol to vitamin D
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Cutaneous sensation
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Nerve ending in dermis, lions and fingers more sensitive
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Excretion
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Skin secrete sodium chloride and urea in sweat.
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Respiratory system function
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Absorb oxygen and eliminate carbon dioxide, maintain acid base balance. Transport oxygen to cells and carbon dioxide to lungs
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Pharynx
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Nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx
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Pharynx functions
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Swallowing, taste, humidifying, filtering, warming air. Hearing and speech
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Larynx
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Voice box. Epiglottis
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Larynx functions
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Sound, speech, swallowing, humidifying, protection of lungs, filtering and warming air
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Trachea
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Windpipe. Divides at corina. Held open and supported by rings of headline cartilage
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Trachea function
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Support airway, cough reflex, humidifying, warming, filtering air
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Lungs
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Bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli, connective tissue, blood vessels and nerves
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Pleural
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Double layer membrane surrounding lungs. Outer called parietal pleura inside visceral pleural.
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Serous fluid
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Between pleura, prevents friction and keeps lung expanded
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Alveoli
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One cell thick. Surrounded by a dense network of capillaries. Facilitate gas exchange; external respiration.
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Surfactant
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Prevents alveoli collapsing when air is exhaled
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Respiration
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Ventilation, external respiration, transport, internal respiration
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Intercostal muscles
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Eleven pairs. Two layers, internal and external. Stimulated to contract by intercostal nerves. When contracted they live up and out and enlarge cavity
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Diaphragm
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Separate thoracic and abdominal cavitities. Stimulated by phoenix nerve. When contracted muscle pulled down and enlarges cavity
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Inspiration
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Active process, diaphragm flattens, intercostal muscles contract, thoracic cavity increases, volume increase, pressure low, air drawn in
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Expiration
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Passive process, diaphragm rises, intercostal muscles relax, thoracic cavity decreases, volume decreases, pressure high, air exhaled
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Elasticity
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Ability for lungs to return to shape. Loss = increased respiratory effort
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Compliance
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Measure of stretch ability, ability and effort to inflate alveoli
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External respiration
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The exchange of gases in the lungs. Occurs through process of diffusion. Facilitated through respiratory membrane
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Internal respiration
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The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the tissues and capillaries
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Rhythmic centre
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Controls rare and depth of breathing, impulses to nerves (diaphragm and intercostal muscles)
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Central chemoreceptor
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Respond to rise in carbon dioxide and stimulate rhythmic centre to increase lung ventilation
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Peripheral chemoreceptor
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In aortic arch and carotid bodies, send impulses to medulla to increase rate and depth of respiration and carbon dioxide excretion to normalise blood PH
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Heart location
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Superior surface of diaphragm, left of midline, anterior to vertebral column, posterior to sternum
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Heart functions
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Ability to contract by itself, pumps oxygen to the body, carbon dioxide to the lungs. Works in synergy with respiratory system,
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Pulmonary circulation
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Right side of heart. Pumps blood to lungs
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Systemic circulation
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Left side of heart. Pumps blood to body
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Heart wall
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Epicardium, myocardium, endocardium, pericardium
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Epicardium
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Outer layer of connective tissue
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Myocardium
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Middle layer, heart muscle,
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Endocardium
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Inner layer
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Pericardium
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Stops overfilling, protects and anchors heart. Double walled sac encloses heart
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Septum
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Divides heart
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Chambers
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Atria and ventricles
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Coronary circulation
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Blood supply to heart muscle I order to function, shortest circulation in the body. Supplied by the right and left coronary sinuses I ascending aorta behind aortic valve
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Myocardium
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Ability to generate and pass on electrical impulses, causes a sequence of muscle contractions
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Stages of cardiac cycle
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Atrial systole (contraction)
Ventricular systole Complete cardiac diastole (relaxation) |
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Atrial systole
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Blood fills atrium, AV valves open and blood enters ventricles. SA node triggers wave of contraction across atria and completes filling of ventricles
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Ventricular systole
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Impulse reaches AV node and slows. Allows atria to empty before ventricles contract. Av node triggers own electrical impulse and spreads to AV bundle, bundle branches and perkinjee fibres. Ventricle contracts pumping blood into pulmonary artery and aorta. AV valves close,
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Cardiac diastole
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Atria and ventricle relax, myocardium recovers and atria refill for next cycle
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Spetal cells
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Secrete surfactant
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Carbon dioxide
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Carried on bicarbonate ions in plasma
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Oxygen
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Carried on haemoglobin
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Aorta
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Blood to body
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Arteries and arterioles
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Oxygen high blood away from heart
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Atrial pressure
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Opens Av valve
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Blood circulation
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Superior and inferior vena cava, right atrium, right ventricle, pulmonary arteries, lungs, right and left pulmonary veins, left atrium, left ventricle, aorta, body
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Blood pressure
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Force blood exerts on blood vessel walls. Generated by contraction of ventricles
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Capillaries
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Tiny blood vessels between arterials and venules. Have leaky walls for gas exchange
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Chordae tindineae
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Prevents Av valves opening upwards
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Diastole
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Relaxation
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ECG
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Recording of electrical changes that accompany a heart PQRST
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Hear blood vessels
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Right and meat pulmonary arteries, superior and inferior vena cava, aorta
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Main blood vessels
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Veins, venules, arteries, arterials capillaries
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P wave
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Small upward deflection on ECG. Represents atrial depolarisation, causes contraction
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QRS wave
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Downward deflection (Q) large upward triangular wave (R) and downward wave (S) represents ventricular depolarisation
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T wave
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Dome shaped upward deflection. Ventricular depolarisation
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Regulates BP and peripheral resistance
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Vasoconstriction and vasodialation
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Sensory inputs
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Body senses the environments inside and outside the body
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Integration
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CNS integrates the incoming sensory input
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Motor output
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CNS regulates and controls the body via the motor system in response to sensory inputs
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The cerebrum
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Four lobes; frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital
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Cerebrum functions
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White matter. Mental activities; memory, intelligence, sense of responsibility, reasoning, moral sense, learning
Sensory perception; pain, temperature, light touch, visual, olfactory, hearing, taste, speech Initiation of voluntary movement |
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Cerebral cortex
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Outer part of cerebrum ((grey matter)
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Area of the CNS
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Motor; initiate movement
Sensory; receive and interpret sensory info Samotosensory; interprets and localises sensations |
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Diencephalon
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Thalamus and hypothalamus
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Thalamus
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Pain, temperature, touch, and some emotions
Situated below corpus callous |
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Hypothalamus
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Regulates homeostasis, autonomic nervous system, appetite, body temperature, emotional reaction, sexual behaviour, sleep/wake cycles
Situated below thalamus, above pituitary gland |
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Brain stem
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Midbrain, pons and medulla oblongata
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Midbrain
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Connects cerebrum with lower brain and spinal cord
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Pons
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Relay station for some cranial nerves, pneumotaxic and apnaustic centre
Below midbrain and above medulla |
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Medulla oblongata
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Houses vital centres for cardio, respiratory and reflexes. Reticular formation of coordination and selective awareness .
From pons to length of spinal cord |
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Cerebellum
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Coordination (voluntary movement) posture and positioning, balance and equilibrium, language processing
Behind pons, below cerebrum |
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Reticular activating system
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Play a part in consciousness and the ability to respond to stimuli
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Protection of CNS
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Meninges, cerebrospinal fluid, blood brain barrier
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Meninges
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Three layers; Duran mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater
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Cerebrospinal fluid
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Water, minerals, glucose, plasma, proteins, creating, urea and white cells
Circulates between pia and arachnoid mater. Transport oxygen and removes waste |
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Blood brain barrier
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Prevents substances in blood entering brain, only lipid soluble and small molecules
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Reflex arc
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Involuntary response to a sensory stimulus
Sensory neuron, interneurons, motor neurons, impulse |
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Spinal nerves
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Cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, coccygeal
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Cervical nerves
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Eight
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Thoracic nerves
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Twelve
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Lumbar nerves
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Five
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Sacral nerves
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Five
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Coccygeal nerves
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One
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Cranial nerves
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12 pairs
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Trochlear nerve (IV)
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Turns eye downward
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Trigeminal nerve (V)
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Motor: Muscles for mastication, sensory: face
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Olfactory nerve (I)
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Sense of smell
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Optic nerve (II)
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Vision
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oculomotor nerve (III)
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Eyelid and eyeball movement
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abducens (VI)
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rotates and retracts eye
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Facial nerve (VII)
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Facial expression, taste
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vestibolocochlear nerve (VIII)
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Hearing
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Glossopharyngeal nerve (IX)
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Taste, swallowing
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Vagus nerve (X)
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Sensory and motor to pharynx and larynx
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Spinal accessory nerve (XI)
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Motor nerve, muscle movement of shoulders and neck
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Hypoglossal nerve (XII)
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Tongue
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Somatic nervous system
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Involuntary, targets skeletal muscles,
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Autonomic nervous system
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Targets organs of body and glands,
Subdivides: sympathetic (fight or flight) and parasympathetic (rest, digest) |
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Neurons
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Transmit information to other neurons in the CNS and form neuronal network, have cell body, dendrites (receive info) and axon ( transmits info)
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Nerve impulse
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An electrochemical event, causes a temporary change in the balance of ions inside and outside a neuron that transmit info
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Resting potential
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Plasma membrane is inactive and polarized, inside negative K+ions. Outside positive NA+ ions
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Depolarisation
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Stimulus causes permeability to alter. Na+ channels open and Na+ enters. Inside now positive
Adjacent sodium channels open |
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Action potential
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Wave of depolarisation moves along
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Repolarisation
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K+ channels open and K+ leaves. Resting potential restored,
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Nerve impulse summary
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Stimulus, change in permeability, na+ ions enter, k+ions leave, action potential travels
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Cells of the ns
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Neurons, astrocytes, microglia, oligodendrocytes, ependymal cells
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Neuroglia
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Support, insulate and protect, don't conduct impulses
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Nuclei
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Groups of cell bodies within CNS
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Ganglion
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Groups of cell bodies outside CNS
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Tract
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Groups of nerve fibres with CNS
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Nerve
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Groups of nerve fibres (axons) outside CNS
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Reflexes
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Immediate, predictable, subconscious involuntary response to change
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Autonomic nervous system
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Sympathetic and parasympathetic systems exert opposite effects on organs
Autonomic and involuntary essential for homeostasis; counter balance effect |
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Synapse
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Junction between neurons.
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Nerve impulse across synapse
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Along axon, down dendrites to synaptic knobs, neurotransmitter across synaptic cleft to receptors. Na+ enters next neuron. New action potential made
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Bone functions
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Support, protect, movement, storage of calcium, blood cell formation; yellow and red bone marrow and leukocytes (WBC)
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Compact bone
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dense smooth homogenous
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Spongy bone
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Small needle like piece with lots of open space
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Bone formation
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Calcium salt; mainly calcium phosphate, provides hardness
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Bone types
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Long, short, flat, irregular
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Long bones
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Compact shaft, spongy end
Femur, tibia, fibula |
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Short bones
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Cube shaped, mainly spongy
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Flat bones
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Thin and flat, usually curved,
Ribs |
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Irregular bones
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Vertebrae
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Joints
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Site where two or bones meet. Holds bones together and allows movement
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Synovial joints
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Space or capsule between bones
Knee, shoulder, hip, elbow |
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Cartilaginous joints
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Pad of fibrocartilage
Vertebrae |
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Fibrous joints
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Touch fibrous material,
Little or no movement Skull |
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Skeletal muscle
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bone or skin attachments
Voluntary |
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Cardiac muscle
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Walls of the heart
Involuntary |
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Smooth muscle
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Respiratory tract, digestive system,
Ducts and glands Involuntary |
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endocrine system
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one of two major communication and control systems
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endocrine processes
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growth and development, metabolism, fluid and electrolyte balance, reproductions, energy balance and stress responses
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exocrine glands
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(exterior) produce secretions via ducts onto surfaces
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endocrine glands
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(interior) produce hormones released into surrounding tissue and blood. no ducts
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hormones
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chemical messengers, produced in one place into the bloodstream and influence other tissues and cells
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tropic hormones
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hormones switched on by other hormones
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amino based hormones
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peptides, proteins and amines
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steroid based hormones
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cholesterol
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receptors
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specific for hormones, can be multiple receptors on one cell for multiple hormones
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water soluble hormones
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alter cell functions by activating plasma membrane receptors
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lipid soluble hormones
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bind to/activate receptors within cell, alter gene, changing the formation of proteins which alter cell activity
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endocrine organs
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pineal gland, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyriod gland, thymus, adrenal gland, pancreatic islets, ovaries/testes
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hormonal
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stimulated by other hormones
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neural
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stimulated by nerve impulses
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humeral
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stimulated by levels in the blood
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negative feedback system
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promotes hormone release, hormone levels rise, higher level of hormone shuts off further release
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thyroxine
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reduces production of TSH, levels fall, too much reduction causes TSH to restart
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PTH
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Controlled by calcium levels
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hypothalamus
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regulates pituitary hormones.
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hypothalamus and anterior pituitary connection
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via veins
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hypothalamus and posterior pituitary connection
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via cells, hormones stored in posterior pituitary until a nerve impulse stimulates release
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anterior pituitary hormones
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ATCH, GH, TSH, Fsh, LH, Prolacting
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Posterior pituitary hormones
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Ocytocin and ADH
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Hypothalamus/pituitary interaction
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links nervous and endocrine systems, controls emotions, health and body functions
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Stress
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Recognized by the hypothalamus
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Long term stress
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hypothalamus > corticotrophine releasing hormone > anterior pituitary > ATCH > adrenal cortex > Mineralcorticoids and glucocorticoids
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short term stress
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Hypothalamus > Nerve impulse > adrenal medulla > Epinephrine and non epinephrine
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Effects of Stress
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Raised BP and Glucose levels. reduced immunity
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Reproduction
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Hypothalamus > pituitary > FSH and LH, prolacting and oxytocin
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Positive feedback systems
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Bloodclotting, prolacting and oxytocin
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Low blood glucose
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pancreatic islets > alpha cells > glucagon > liver > breaks down glucagon > released into blood
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high blood glucose
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pancreatic islets > beta cells > insulin > glucose uptake by cells increased
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thyroid gland
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trophic hormones (TSH) > T3 and T4 > T4 regulated metabolism, growth and development
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adrenal cortex
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mineralcorticoids and glucocorticoids
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Fluid gain
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metabolism, fluid and food
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fluid loss
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urine, feces, respiration, skin, sweat
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kidney function
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regulates ion levels in blood, blood volume, pressure and PH. Prolific hormones and secrete waste
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Renal hilim
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Kidneys, near center. passage for ureter, blood, lymphatic vessels and nerves
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renal medulla
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kidneys, red brown region, contains renal pyramids
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renal pelvis
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kidneys, funnel shaped, contains minor and major calyces. urine drains here
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glomerulus
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Kidneys, capillary networks, starts at afferent arterioles, and ends at efferent arterioles
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nephrons
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kidneys, functional unit, consists of renal corpuscle and renal tubule
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renal corpuscle
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kidneys, made of glomerulus and glomerular capsule. site where blood plasma is filtered
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glomerular capsule
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kidneys, double walled cup surrounding the glumerulus cappilaries
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urine production
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kidneys, glorerular filtration, tubular re-absorption, tubular secretion
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glomerular filtration
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BP forces water ad most dilutes in blood plasma across wall of glomerular capsule
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tubular re-absorption
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fluid flows alond renal tubule and collecting ducts. 99% filtered water returned to blood
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tubular secretion
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fluid flows along tubule and collecting duct and removes substances from blood (waste)
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renal tubule
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site where filters blood plasma passes
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ureters
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transport urine from renal pelvis (kidneys) to bladder
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urethra
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small tube leading from bladder to exterior of body
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urinary reflex
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spinal cord > parasympathetic impulses > bladder wall > detrusor muscle > contracts >internal urethra sphincter muscles > relaxes
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ADH
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increases water re-absorption
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aldosterone
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increase sodium and water absorption. increases pottasium excretion
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ingestion
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eating and drinking
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propulsion
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mixing and moving food
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digestion
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chemical and mechanical
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mechanical digestion
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mastication
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chemical digestion
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by enzymes secreted by glands and accessory organs
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absorption
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digested food substances pass through the walls of some organs into the blood and lymph capillaries for use around the body
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elimination
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food that cannot be digested and absorbed are excreted by the process of defecation
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digestive organs
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mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anal canal
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accessory organs
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salivary glands, pancreas, liver
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digestive system tissues
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outer - peritoneum, muscle layer, submucosa and mucosa
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peritoneum
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closed sac containing serous fluid. prevents friction and provides a physical barrier and isolates infection (appendix)
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muscle layer
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two layers of smooth muscle, involved in peristalsis
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peristalsis
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sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves send waves of contraction and relaxation that mixes and move food along
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mucosa
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mucus membrane. protect, secretes and absorbs
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saliva composition
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water, mineral salts, amylase, lysozyme, mucus, immunoglobins, blood clotting factors
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saliva functions
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chemical digestion, lubricates food, cleans mouth, taste and non specific defenses
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stomach
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stores food, mixes with gastric juice, liquefies food, absorbs some water. mucus membrane protects stomach from gastric juice
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gastric juice
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acidifies food, stops amylase digestion, kills microbes, acid level activates pepsin digestion
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small intestine
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peristalsis, secretes intestinal juice, completes chemical digestion, protects and main site for absorption
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villi
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small intestine, finger like projections = absorption at a faster rate
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globlet cells
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secrete mucus
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pancreatic juice
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digest proteins (tripsin and chymotrisin)
Digest carbs (pancreatic amylase) digest fats (lipase) |
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bile
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secreted by liver, stored in gall bladder and sent to duodeum when food is eating
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bile route to gall bladder
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liver > hepatic duct > cystic duct > gall bladder
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bile route to duodeum
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Duodeum > secretin and CCK > gall bladder contracts > hepatopancreatic sphinceter relaxes > bile enters duodeum
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large intestines
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ceacum, colon, sigmoid colon, rectum and anal canal
final absorption, microbial actions, mass movement, defecation |
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defecation
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sigmoid colon > empties into rectum > nerve endings > stretch > reflex to defults inhibit this reflex though the external anal sphincter and the pudendal nerve
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liver
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carb, fat and protein metabolism. inactivates hormones, secrete bile and storage
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swallowing
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larynx moves up and is covered by epiglottis, stops food entering lungs
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balanced diet
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fruit and veg (1/3)
bread, rice, potatoes and pasta (1/3) meat, fish, eggs and beans (1/9) milk and dairy (1/9) sugary foods and drinks (1/18) |
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carbs
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sugars and starches
sugar, jam, bread, pasta, fruit and veg provide heat, energy, and protein sharing |
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monosaccharide
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carb. simplest form
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disaccharide
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two monosaccharide molecule joined together
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poysaccharide
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complex monosaccharide molecules
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proteins
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amino acids
growth, repair, synthesis enzymes, plasma, antibodies. energy provsion |
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fats
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fats and cholesterol
heat provision, energy, organ support and insulation |
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vitamins
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fat soluble: ADEK
water solubke: B complex and C |
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minerals
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calcium, phosphate, iron, sodium, potassium and iodine
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nutrient groups
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carbs, proteins, fats, vitamins and minerals
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Pulse points
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common carotid artery
radial artery femoral artery popliteal artery posterior tibial artery |
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common carotid artery
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side of neck
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radial artery
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thumb side of wrist
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femoral artery
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groin
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popliteal artery
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behind the knee
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posterior tibial artery
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ankle
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menstrual phase
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day 1
caused by drop in ovarian hormones; progesterone and estrogen |
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ovulation
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day 14
nature follicle ruptures and releases egg into pelvis cavity. high estrogen stimulates more LH production |
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proliferative phase
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day 4
FSH causes follicle to grow and secretes estrogen |
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secretory phase
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day 18
mature follicle collapses, LH stimulates remaining follicle cells to enlarge. corpus luteum forms and secrete progesterone and estrogen |
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prostate gland
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secrete milky fluid which makes up 30% of semen. has clotting enzymes which thickens the semen in the vagina
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phases of the female hormone cycle
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menstrual (4 days)
Proliferative (10 days) ovulation (4 days) secretory (10 days) |
