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154 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What 2 systems cooperate to supply O2 & eliminate CO2?
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Cardiovascular, respiratory system.
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Failure of cardiovascular & respiratory system results in what?
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Disruption of homeostasis - cells die of oxygen starvation & waste buildup.
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What are 6 functions of the respiratory system?
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Gas exchange, regulates blood pH, smell receptors, filters air, produces vocal sounds, excretes some water/heat.
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What are the 3 basic steps of respiration?
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Pulmonary ventilation (breathing), external (pulmonary) respiration, internal (tissue) respiration.
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What 6 structures make up the respiratory system?
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Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs.
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What structures are part of the upper respiratory system?
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Nose, pharynx, & associated structures.
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What structures are part of the lower respiratory system?
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Larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs.
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What structures are part of the conducting zone?
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Tube pathway - Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchiole, terminal bronchioles.
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What structures are part of the respiratory zone?
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Area of gas exchange - bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, alveoli.
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External nose is made of cartilage, skin, muscle, & lined w/ ___. Openings to exterior are ___ aka nostrils.
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Mucous membrane. External nares.
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Bony framework of external nose is formed by what 3 bones?
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Frontal, nasal, maxilla.
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Cartilaginous framework of external nose is formed by 3 cartilages?
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Septal nasal, lateral nasal, alar cartilage.
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What are 3 functions of the internal nose structures?
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1) Warming, moistening, filtering air. 2) Receiving olfactory stimuli. 3) Resonating chamber to modify speech sounds.
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Opening b/w internal nose & pharynx.
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Internal nares (choanae)
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What 2 structures drain into the internal nose?
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Paranasal sinuses, nasolacrimal ducts.
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Space within internal nose is ___. Ant portion of nasal cavity just inside nostrils is ___. Vertical partition in nasal cavity is ___.
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Nasal cavity. Nasal vestibule. Nasal septum.
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How is air treated as it travels through the vestibule & sup/mid/inf meatuses?
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Vestibule has hairs that filter dust particles. Meatuses have increased surface area to trap moisture on exhalation which prevents dehydration.
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Where is olfactory epithelium found?
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Superior nasal conchae
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How do the capillaries, goblet cells, and ciliated epithelium affect incoming air?
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Capillaries - warm air. Goblet cells - secrete mucous that moistens air & traps dust. Cilia - move mucous/trapped dust toward pharynx to spit/swallow.
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What are the borders of the pharynx (throat)?
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Internal nares to cricoid cartilage
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What are the borders of the nasopharynx? Tonsil(s) in this area? What openings in this area? Function?
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Posterior to nasal cavity to soft palate. Pharyngeal (adenoid) tonsil. 2 internal nares, 2 openings to eustachian tubes, 1 opening to oropharynx. Respiration, equalize pressure b/w pharynx & middle ear.
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What are the borders of the oropharynx? Tonsil(s) in this area? What openings in this area? Function?
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Posterior to oral cavity from soft palate to hyoid bone. Palatine, lingual tonsils. Fauces - opening from mouth. Digestion, respiration.
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What are the borders of the laryngopharynx? Tonsil(s) in this area? What openings in this area? Function?
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Hyoid bone to esophagus & larynx (voice box). Digestion, respiration.
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Arch shaped muscular partition b/w nasopharynx and oropharynx that forms roof of mouth & lined by mucous membrane.
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Soft palate
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In what 3 circumstances are tonsillectomies performed?
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Frequent tonsil inflammation, tonsils develop abcess/tumour, tonsils obstruct breathing during sleep.
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At what level of vertebrae is the larynx found?
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C4-C6
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Which larynx cartilage influences changes in the vocal folds?
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Arytenoid (pyramidal) cartilage
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Which larynx cartilage forms the laryngeal eminence (Adam's apple)?
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Thyroid cartilage
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Which larynx cartilage resembles a leaf & during swallowing, is pulled down to close larynx entrance?
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Epiglottis
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Which larynx cartilage is a landmark for making an emergency airway (tracheotomy)?
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Cricoid cartilage
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What is the superior vs inferior vocal cord?
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Vestibular/false vocal cord (superior), true vocal cord (inferior)
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Space b/w 2 true vocal cords.
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Rima glottidis.
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What kind of sound do taut vs relaxed vocal cords make?
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Taut - high. Relaxed - low.
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Resonating chambers in what 4 areas give us individual voices? What helps us produce vowel sounds vs enunciate words?
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Individual voice - pharynx, mouth, nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses. Vowel sounds - pharynx mm. Words - mm of face, tongue, lips.
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What are the borders of the trachea? What 3 tissues form it?
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Larynx to primary bronchi. Made of smooth mm, C-shaped rings of cartilage, ciliated epithelium.
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What are the 4 layers that line the trachea from inside to outside?
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Mucosa, submucosa, hyaline cartilage, adventitia.
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What is the function of the cartilage rings & ciliated epithelium in the trachea?
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Rings keep airway open. Cilia sweep debris away from lungs to throat to be swallowed.
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At what vertebral level does the right/left pulmonary bronchi divide? What is this area called that is most sensitive to triggering cough reflex?
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T4-T5. Carina.
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Which bronchus is more vertical, shorter, wider & more likely to get object lodged in it?
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Right bronchus
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What is the order of structures in the bronchial tree starting with the trachea?
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Trachea, 1º bronchi, 2º bronchi, 3º bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles.
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Walls of bronchi contain rings of cartilage while walls of bronchioles contain ___.
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Smooth mm.
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Condition of partly/fully collapsed lung.
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Atelectasis
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Condition where pleural cavity is filled w/ air, blood, or pus which may collapse lung.
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Pneumothorax (air), hemothorax (blood)
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What are the 2 layers of the pleural membrane of the lungs?
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Parietal (outer layer attached to cavity wall), visceral (covers lungs).
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What are the 4 boundaries of the lungs?
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Diaphragm to superior to clavicles. Ribs ant to post.
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Which part of the lungs is the apex vs base?
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Apex - pointy top. Base - broad flat bottom.
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Medial surface of lung contains ___ through which bronchi, pulmonary BVs, lymph vessels, nerves enter/exit.
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Hilum
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Left lung has ___ for heart which makes it 10% smaller. Right lung is thicker/broader but shorter due to ___.
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Cardiac notch. Liver.
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Removal of excess fluid from pleural cavity using needle.
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Thoracentesis
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Which part of the lung can be palpated & where?
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Apex - superior to medial 1/3 of clavicle.
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At what level does the base of the lungs extend anteriorly vs posteriorly?
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Ant - 6th costal cartilage. Post - T10.
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Right lung has ___ lobes separated by ___ fissures. What are the fissures named?
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3 lobes. 2 fissures. Oblique, horizontal fissure.
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Leg lung has ___ lobes separated by ___ fissures. What are the fissures named?
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2 lobes. 1 fissure. Oblique fissure.
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Segment of lung tissue that each 3º bronchi supplies. How many are found in each lung?
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Bronchopulmonary segment - 10 per lung.
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Each bronchopulmonary segment consists of ___ which contain lymphatics, arterioles, venules, terminal bronchioles, respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, alveoli.
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Lobules
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Cup-shaped outpouching lined by simple squamous epithelium & thin elastic basement membrane in lungs.
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Alveolus
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2 or more alveoli that share common opening.
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Alveolar sac
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Type of alveolar cell - squamous pulmonary epithelial. Main site of gas exchange.
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Type I alveolar cell
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Type of alveolar cell - septal cell containing microvilli & secrete alveolar fluid which contains ___ that lowers surface tension of alveolar fluid, preventing collapse of alveoli.
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Type II alveolar cell. Surfactant.
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Phagocytes found in alveolar wall that remove dust/debris.
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Alveolar macrophages (dust cells)
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Disorder of premature infants where alveoli don't have enough surfactant to remain open.
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Respiratory distress syndrome
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Where does gas exchange occur?
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Respiratory membrane (formed by alveolar & capillary membranes).
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What are the 4 layers of the respiratory membrane?
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Alveolar wall (type I/II alveolar cells), epithelial basement membrane, capillary basement membrane, capillary endothelium.
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What are 2 sets of arteries that supply the lungs?
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Pulmonary & bronchial arteries
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What is ventilation-perfusion coupling? How does it differ in the body?
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In the lungs, vasoconstriction due to hypoxia (low oxygen) diverts pulmonary blood from poorly ventilated to well ventilated areas. In all other body tissues, hypoxia causes dilation to increase blood flow.
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Most blood leaves lungs by ___ veins but some drain into ___ veins, then into superior vena cava.
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Pulmonary veins. Bronchial veins.
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Rate of airflow & amount of effort needed for breathing are influenced by what 3 factors?
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Alveolar surface tension, compliance of lungs, airway resistance
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For air to flow in lungs the pressure inside alveoli must become (higher/lower) than atmospheric pressure. To do this the volume of the lungs must be (increased/decreased).
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Lower. Increased.
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Law that states that volume of gas varies inversely w/ pressure (assuming temp is constant).
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Boyle's Law
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When is pressure inside the lungs equal to air pressure of the atmosphere?
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Just before inhalation
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First step in expanding lungs involves contraction of main respiratory mm - what are they? How much air is each responsible for (%) when compared?
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Diaphragm (75%), external intercostal (25%)
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What factors may prevent complete descent of diaphragm?
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Advanced pregnancy, excessive obesity.
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With normal breathing vs exercise, how much does the diaphragm lower, pressure decrease, & volume of air that moves in?
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Normal - 1cm, 1-3 mmHg, 500ml. Exercise - 10cm, 100 mmHg, 2-3L.
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Inhalation occurs when alveolar (intrapulmonic) pressure falls below ___ pressure. Diaphragm & ext intercostals contract to increase thorax size, thus ___ intrapleural (intrathoracic) pressure so lungs expand. Air moves in along pressure gradient.
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Atmospheric. Decrease.
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During forceful inhalations, what 3 accessory mm are used?
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SCM, scalenes, pec minor.
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Is inhalation/exhalation an active/passive process?
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Inhalation - active b/c mm contract. Exhalation - passive mm relax.
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Exhalation occurs when alveolar pressure is (higher/lower) than atmospheric pressure. Results in elastic recoil of chest wall/lungs, which (increases/decreases) intrapleural & alveolar pressure, and (increases/decreases) lung volume.
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Increases. Decreases.
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What 2 forces cause elastic recoil?
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Recoil of elastic fibers that were stretched w/ thoracic expansion, inward pull of surface tension.
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Forceful expiration employs contraction from what 2 mm?
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Internal intercostals, abdominal mm.
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What is normal atmospheric pressure at sea level?
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760 mmHg
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Respiratory distress syndrome - what demographic is more susceptible? What are symptoms?
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Moms w/ diabetes, males, European americans. Labored/irregular breathing, nostril flare inhalation, grunting exhalation, blue skin.
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In lungs, compliance is related to what 2 principle factors?
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Elasticity, surface tension.
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Effort required to stretch lungs & chest wall.
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Compliance
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What are 4 ways lung compliance can decrease?
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Scar lung tissue, pulmonary edema, surfactant deficiency, any way that impedes lung expansion/contraction.
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How is airflow calculated?
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A = P/R --> Airflow = pressure difference b/w alveoli & atmosphere / resistance.
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Larger diameter airways (increase/decrease) resistance. Diameter is also regulated by contraction/relaxation of ___.
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Decrease. Smooth mm.
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Normal variation in breathing rate/depth.
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Eupnea
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Shallow chest breathing w/ upward/downward movement of chest due to contraction of intercostal mm. Often used during increased ventilation, ie exercise.
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Costal breathing
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Deep breathing consisting of outward movement of abdomen due to contraction/relaxation of diaphragm.
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Diaphragmatic breathing
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___ are used to express emotions/clear air passageways.
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Modified respiratory movements
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Air volumes exchanged during breathing & rate of ventilation are measured w/ ___ & record is called ___.
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Spirometer (respirometer). Spirogram.
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Volume of 1 breath (500 ml)
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Tidal volume
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What is minute volume of respiration (minute ventilation)? How is it calculated?
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Total volume of air inhaled/exhaled each min. MV = respiratory rate per min x tidal volume.
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Only 70% (350mL) of tidal volume actually reaches alveoli, other 30% (150mL) remains in airways as ___.
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Anatomic dead space
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What is alveolar ventilation rate? How is it calculated?
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Volume of air per min that reaches respiratory zone. AVR = 350ml/breath x 12 breaths/min.
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Additional amount of air that can be inhaled by taking a very deep breath (3100ml men, 1900ml women).
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Inspiratory reserve volume
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Amount of air that can be pushed out w/ forcible exhalation (1200ml men, 700ml women).
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Expiratory reserve volume
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Volume of air that can be exhaled from lungs in 1 sec with max effort following max inhalation.
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Forced expiratory volume in 1 second
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Air left in lungs after expiratory reserve is exhaled (1200ml men, 1100 women).
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Residual volume
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Air remaining in lung tissue after thoracic cavity is opened & intrapleural pressure rises & forces out some residual volume. Used to determine if baby is stillborn or died after birth.
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Minimal volume
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How is inspiratory capacity calculated?
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Inspiratory reserve volume + tidal volume
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How is functional residual capacity calculated?
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Residual volume + expiratory reserve volume
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How is vital capacity calculated?
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Tidal volume + inspiratory reserve volume + expiratory reserve volume
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How is total lung capacity calculated?
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Vital capacity + residual volume
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What is Dalton's law in regards to gas pressure?
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Each gas in a mixture of gases exerts its own pressure as if all other gases were not present.
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The greater the difference in partial pressure of gas, the ___ the rate of diffusion.
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Faster
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Total pressure of gas mixture is calculated by ___ all partial pressures.
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Adding
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How is partial pressure calculated of a gas found in a mixture?
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% of gas in mixture x total pressure = partial pressure
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What are 2 reasons alveolar air has less O2 and more CO2?
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Gas exchange in alveoli increase CO2 & decrease O2. As inhaled air becomes humidified, water vapor (H2O) increases & O2 decreases.
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Which law states that the quanity of gas that will dissolve in liquid is proportional to the partial pressure of the gas & its attraction for water.
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Henry's law
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The (higher/lower) the partial pressure of a gas over a liquid & the (higher/lower) the solubility, the more gas will stay in solution.
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Higher. Higher.
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Condition where there is excessive dissolved nitrogen & feels similar to intoxication.
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Nitrogen narcosis
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Condition where diver ascends too quickly & nitrogen bubbles form in tissues. Negative symptoms occur.
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Decompression sickness (the bends)
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At rest, only ___% of oxygen in oxygenated blood actually enters tissue cells. During exercise, more is released.
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25% oxygen
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The rate of pulmonary & systemic gas exchange depends on what 4 factors?
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Partial pressure differences (greater = faster diffusion), large surface area for gas exchange, small diffusion distance, solubility & molecular weight of gases.
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Most O2 in oxygenated blood (98.5%) is carried w/ ___ inside RBCs as ___.
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Hemoglobin. Oxyhemoglobin.
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What is the chemical structure of hemoglobin?
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Contains protein - globin. Pigment - heme contains 4 iron atoms that each combine w/ O2.
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The (higher/lower) the O2 partial pressure, the more O2 will combine w/ hemoglobin until all Hb molecules are saturated.
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Higher
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When is hemoglobin said to be fully vs partially saturated?
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Fully saturated - bound 4 O2 molecules. Partially saturated - less than 4 O2 molecules bound.
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What is the most important factor that determines how much O2 binds to hemoglobin?
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Po2 = partial oxygen pressure
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What are 4 factors that affect Hb affinity for oxygen?
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Acid (low pH) causes O2 to split from Hb (Bohr effect). Pco2 causes low blood pH. Increased temp releases O2 (active cells release acid/heat). BPG - formed in RBCs during glycolysis splits O2.
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How is fetal Hb different from an adult?
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Fetal Hb is more attracted to oxygen b/c there is low oxygen in maternal blood so it binds to more oxygen to prevent hypoxia.
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CO2 is transported in the blood in what 3 main forms?
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Dissolved CO2 (7%), carbaminohemoglobin (23%) mainly globin of Hb in RBCs, bicarbonate ions (70%).
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Exchange of bicarbonate ions (HCO3) & chloride ions which maintains electrical balance b/w blood plasma & RBC cytosol.
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Chloride shift
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Haldane effect states the (higher/lower) the oxygen saturation of Hb, the (higher/lower) the CO2 carrying capacity of blood.
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Lower. Higher.
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Nerve impulses sent to respiratory mm are located bilaterally in the ___ & ___ of brain stem.
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Medulla oblongata. Pons.
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The respiratory center of brain consists of what 3 areas w/ different functions?
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Medullary rhythmicity, pneumotaxic, apneustic area.
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Where is the medullary rhythmicity area located & what is its function?
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Medulla oblongata. Controls rhythm of respiration. Pacemaker of respiration.
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During quiet breathing, inspiratory area sends impulses for 2 sec to what nerves causing diaphragm to contract?
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Phrenic nn
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During quiet breathing, mm of inspiration relax for 3 sec to allow ___. Then cycle repeats.
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Elastic recoil (expiration)
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When is the expiratory area activated? What mm contract?
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During forceful breathing. Abdominal & internal intercostal mm.
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The ___ in the pons coordinates transition b/w inspiration/expiration by sending inhibitory impulses to respiratory area to shorten duration of inhalation. Prevents lungs from over-inflating.
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Pneumotaxic area
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If the pneumotaxic area is more active, how does it affect breathing rate?
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Increases breathing rate
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The ___ in the pons coordinates transition b/w inspiration/expiration by sending impulses to respiratory area to prolong duration of inhalation.
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Apneustic area
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Which of the pneumotaxic or apneustic area overrides the other when active?
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Active pneumotaxic area overrides apneustic area.
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Cortical influences allow ___ control of respiration that may be needed to avoid inhaling toxic gas or water.
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Voluntary
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What limits breath holding?
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Buildup of H+ & CO2. Cause inspiratory area to resume breathing.
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Nerve impulses from what 2 areas allow emotional stimuli to alter respiration? (ie, laughing, crying)
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Hypothalamus, limbic system
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Where are central chemoreceptors found vs peripheral chemoreceptors?
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Central - medulla oblongata. Peripheral - aortic & carotid bodies.
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What nerves send impulses from chemoreceptors in aortic bodies vs carotid bodies to respiratory centre?
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Aortic bodies - vagus nn. Carotid bodies - glossopharyngeal nn (CN 9).
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What 2 chemicals do central chemoreceptors detect & where?
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H+, Pco2 (or both) in cerebrospinal fluid.
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What 3 chemicals do peripheral chemoreceptors detect & where?
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H+, Pco2, Po2 in blood.
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Condition of increase in pco2 that stimulates central/peripheral chemoreceptors. Inspiratory area is stimulated & hyperventilation occurs.
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Hypercapnia/hypercarbia
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Condition where arterial Pco2 is lower than 40 mmHg. Chemoreceptors not stimulated & inspiratory area sets own pace until CO2 accumulates & Pco2 rises to 40 mmHg.
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Hypocapnia/hypocarbia
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What is hypoxia? What are 4 types?
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Deficiency of O2 at tissue level. Hypoxic - low Po2 due to high altitude, airway obstruction, lung fluid. Anemic - hemoglobin function decreased. Ischemic - blood flow to tissue reduced. Histotoxic - tissue unable to use O2 properly b/c of toxic agent.
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___ of joints/mm stimulate inspiratory center to increase ventilation before exercise induced oxygen need.
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Proprioceptors
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___ reflex detects lung expansion w/ stretch receptors located in walls of ___ & ___ & limits expansion to prevent damage.
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Inflation reflex (Hering-Breuer). Bronchi, bronchioles.
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Inflation reflex inhibits what 2 areas in the pons to cause exhalation?
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Inspiratory, apneustic
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What are 6 factors that affect ventilation rate/depth? How do they increase/decrease respiration?
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Blood pressure - rise BP decreases rate resp. Limbic system - anticipation of activity/stress increases rate/depth resp. Temp
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Respiratory system works w/ ___ system to make adjustments for different exercise intensities/durations.
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Cardiovascular
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How does exercise affect cardiac output, pulmonary perfusion, & O2 diffusing capacity?
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Increases all.
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Increased ventilation is initially rapid rate due to ___ influences, then more gradually due to ___ stimulation from changes in cell metabolism. Reversed effect when exercise stops.
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Neural. Chemical.
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How does aging affect respiratory system?
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Airways, tissue of resp tract, chest wall become more rigid. Decreased vital capacity, blood oxygen level, alveolar macrophage activity, ciliary action in resp tract.
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What pathologies are elderly people more susceptible to?
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Pneumonia, bronchitis, emphysema, other lung disorders.
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