A&p 1--Final Exam

Front 1

Skeletal System Components

Back 1

206 long bones
2 divisions:
1. Axial
2. Appendicular

Front 2

Axial Sekleton

Back 2

Bones along long axis
Supports organs of head, neck, trunk
-skull
-ossicles (middle ear)
-vertebral column
-thoracic cage

Front 3

Skull

Back 3

-some bones have air sinuses
-reduces weight, connection between nasal cavity, improves resonance

Front 4

Infant Skull

Back 4

-fontanels (soft spots)
-membranous tissue
-allow for molding during birth, brain growth
-proportions different from adult
-small facial bones
-prominent forehead
-large orbits

Front 5

Hyoid Bone

Back 5

-only bone not articulating with another, attached by bone
-functions: move tongue, swallow

Front 6

Vertebral Column

Back 6

-26 vertebrae separated by inter vertebral disk
-5 regions
7 cervical (atlas=C1; axis=C2)
12 thoracic
5 lumbar
5 sacral --> fuse into 1 sacrum
4 coccygeal vertebrae --> fuse into 1 coccyx

Front 7

Vertebral Curves

Back 7

-primary (concave anteriorly) (
thoracic region
pelvic (sacral)
-secondary (convex anteriorly) )
cervical
lumbar

Front 8

Thoracic Cage (Rib Cage)

Back 8

1. 12 pairs of ribs
-each pair articulates with thoracic vertebra
-7 true ribs (connect directly to sternum)
-5 false ribs (do not connect directly with sternum)
2. Costal Cartilage
-Hyline
3. Sternum

Front 9

Appendicular Skeleton

Back 9

1. pectoral girdle
2. upper limbs
3. pelvic girdle
4. lower limbs

Front 10

Pectoral Girdle

Back 10

-scapula and clavicle
-connects upper limbs to axial skeleton

Front 11

Upper limbs

Back 11

1. Humerus
2. Radius (lateral to Ulna)
3. Ulna (medial to Radius)
4. Carpals (8)
5. Metacarpals (5)
6. Phalanges

Front 12

Pelvic Girdle

Back 12

-connect lower limbs to axial skeleton
-2 coxal (innominate) bones (ossa coxae)
1. ilium
2. ischium
3. pubis
-pelvis=2 ossa coxae + sacrum + coccyx

Front 13

Lower Limbs

Back 13

1. femur
2. tibia
3. fibula
4. patella
5. tarsals (7)
6. metatarsals (5)
7. phalanges

Front 14

Skeletal System Functions

Back 14

1. support
2. protection
3. movement (locomotion)
4. mineral storage
5. hematopoiesis...red marrow
6. energy reserve...yellow marrow

Front 15

Types of Bones

Back 15

Constant: long; short; flat; irregular
Variable numbered: sutural/wormian; sesamoid

Front 16

Long Bone Structure

Back 16

(femur, phalanges, humerus, radius, ulna, tibia, fibula)
Parts:
-diaphysis
-metaphysis
-epiphyses
-articular cartilage (hyline)
-periosteum (surrounds bone, not bone tissue)
-medullary cavity (yellow marrow)
-endosteum (lines medullary cavity)

Front 17

Variable Numbered Bones

Back 17

1. sutural (Wormian)
-form between sutures of skull
2. sesamoid
-form in tendons/ligaments under stress

Front 18

Histology of Bone Tissue

Back 18

Types of Cells:
1. osteogenic: unspecialized bone forming cells
-during mitosis, daughter cells differentiate to form...
2. osteoblasts: specialized, bone forming
-cannot divide, secrete matrix, to form...
3. osteocyte: mature bone cells
-1 per lacuna
4. osteoclasts: bone reabsorbing
-eat away at bone matrix
-form from monocytes
-enzymes released from ruffled border

Front 19

Types of Bone Tissues

Back 19

1. Spongy (cancellous)
2. Compact

Front 20

Spongy Bone

Back 20

-makes up most bone tissue except outer layer
-interlaced trabeculae (bony plates)
-irregular lacunae with osteocytes
-red bone marrow between spaces
-compressible because of spaces

Front 21

Compact Bone

Back 21

-found in outer layer and diaphysis (long bones)
-very dense, no spaces, not compressible
-more protection and support
-cells arranged in Haversian Systems

Front 22

Haversian Systems (osteons)

Back 22

-Haversian (central) canals
-blood vessels and lymphatic vessels
-nutrients and wastes to osteon
-lamellae
-osteocytes surrounding center
-rings of lacunae (within osteocyte) close to nutrients
-canaliculi
-run through solid bone (bony matrix) to the into Haversian canal

Front 23

Ossification (bone formation)

Back 23

-formation of bones
-2 types
1. endochondral (within cartilage)
-cartilage in shape of bone, replaced by bone
-most bones (all long bones)
2. intramembranous
-basic bone shape laid out by fibrous connective tissue membrane, replaced by bone

Front 24

Endochondral Ossification

Back 24

-begins at ossification centers
-primary and secondary

Front 25

Primary Ossification Center

Back 25

at the center of diaphysis of long bone, spreads in both direction

Front 26

Secondary Ossification Center

Back 26

in epiphyses of long bones

Front 27

Steps of Endochondral Ossification

Back 27

1. Chondrocytes (cartilage cells) divide, hypertrophy (enlarge), then die
2. blood brings osteoblasts
3. osteoblasts secrete matrix (like cement)
-golgi complex secretes mucopolysaccharides
-endoplasmic reticulum secretes protein fibers
4. calcification: hardens matrix
-deposit Ca++ salts

Front 28

Intramembranous Ossification

Back 28

-bone begins as fibrous connective tissue
-begins at ossification center (center of membrane)
-steps:
1. blood brings osteoblasts
2. osteoblasts secrete matrix
3. calcification

Front 29

Fontanel (soft spot) formation

Back 29

-intramembranous growth radiates from center
-skull is also growing, membranous growth occurs
-outer edges still connective tissue by birth

Front 30

Longitudinal Growth of Long Bones

Back 30

-occurs at epiphyseal disks (growth plates)
-hyaline cartilage
-chondrocytes divide ---> hypertrophy --> die --> ossification
-bones elongate until cartilage is replaced by bone (bone cells don't divide)

Front 31

Radial Growth of Long Bones

Back 31

-ossification at periosteum by osteoblasts (just under periosteum)
-resorption at endosteum by osteoclasts

Front 32

Cellular Respiration

Back 32

-chemical reactions occurring within the cell
-reactions to oxidize glucose to extract energy in cell and store as ATP

Front 33

Oxidation/Reduction (Redox) reactions

Back 33

-chemical reactions based on oxidation numbers

Front 34

Oxidation Numbers

Back 34

-way to keep track based on number of electrons transferred in reactions

Front 35

Rules for Assigning Oxidation Numbers

Back 35

1. for ions, oxidation number equals the charge
eg Cl-=-1, Mg++=+2
2. for atoms in free state, oxidation number=0
atoms of elements not combined with other
3. in compound:
-for Oxygen, oxidation number=-2
-for Hydrogen, oxidation number =+1
Sum of all oxidation numbers=charge

Front 36

Oxidation

Back 36

-increase in oxidation (more positive)
-decrease in energy content -- releases energy (exergonic)
-occurs in one of three ways:
1. loss of electrons
2. loss of hydrogen atoms
3. gain of oxygen atoms

Front 37

Reduction

Back 37

-reverse of oxidation
-decrease in oxidation number (less positive)
-gain of energy -- energy is absorbed, used (endergonic)
-methods:
1. gain electrons (gain in negative charge)
2. gain in hydrogen ions
3. loss of oxygen atoms

Front 38

Redox Reductions Linked

Back 38

-exergonic overall (amount of energy released > amount of energy gained)
-example: Cellular Respiration

Front 39

C_6 H_12 O_6+6O_2 →6H_2 O+6CO_2

Back 39

What is oxidized?
-Carbon, change in C, increased to +4
What is reduced?
-Oxygen, change in O, reduced to -2

Front 40

Coenzymes

Back 40

attached to enzymes to ensure proper shape of active site
-made from vitamins
-can be used for transferring electrons from H ions
-involved in oxidation
-can be reused since they return to original state
-co-enzymes used in cellular respiration:
1. NAD
2. FAD
3. CoA

Front 41

NAD

Back 41

NAD^+ +2H <--> NADH + H+
(oxidized)(pick-up H)-(reduction)-->

one H electron neutralizes charge and grabs onto NAD, one proton remaining (positive H ion)

Front 42

FAD

Back 42

FAD + 2H <--> FADH_2
(oxidized)

takes on 2 Hydrogen ions

Front 43

CoA

Back 43

transfers Carbon fragments

Front 44

ATP

Back 44

-energy captured and stored in high energy bonds (~) between phosphate groups
-energy is released when bond is broken
example:
A-P~P~P (ATP) <--> A-P~P (ADP) + P_i + energy
when bond is broken, energy released
from R to L = energy storage, main purpose of cellular respiration

Front 45

Cellular Respiration Mechanics

Back 45

-overall chemical reactions
-occurs in 4 basic stages:
1. glycolysis
2. transition stage
3. Kerbs cycle
4. electron transport chain

Front 46

Glycolysis

Back 46

-splitting sugar
-occurs in cytoplasm
-total of 9 chemical reactions

Front 47

Transition Stage

Back 47

-passes from cytoplasm to mitochondrial matrix)

Front 48

Krebs Cycle

Back 48

-occurs in mitochondrial matrix
-9 chemical reactions, turned twice

Front 49

Electron Transport Chain

Back 49

-series of molecules embedded within inner mitochondrial membrane
-reduced NAD and FAD carry H_2 here
-each H has proton separated from electron
-electrons passed down chain, release of energy
-Oxygen=final electron acceptor (end of the line), driving force of electron chain

Front 50

Chemiosmotic Mechanism of ATP Generation

Back 50

-combines events of electron chain with ATP generation
-less energy as electrons move down the line
-energy used to pump Hydrogen ions from matrix --> inter membrane space
... therefore produces concentration of charges, electrical gradient = potential energy (Proton Motive Force)
-can be converted to chemical energy by pushing ions through hole in membrane
-H+ channels in inner membrane are part of enzyme ATP Synthatase
-as H+ rush into matrix, enzyme uses PMF to make ATP
-each reduced NAD generates 3 ATP
-each reduced FAD generates 2 ATP
-reduced NAD in cytoplasm transported to matrix by FAD (becomes reduced FADH_2) via shuttle mechanism

Front 51

Fermentation

Back 51

-organic compound accepts electrons from reduced NAD produced during glycolysis
-regenerates (oxidized) NAD+ needed for glycolysis

Front 52

Catabolism of Compounds other than Glucose

Back 52

-energy from proteins, lipids, carbs
-all molecules converted into compounds which show up somewhere in respiration cycle
-fats are high in energy because they feed into glycolysis and Krebs cycle