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74 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
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Adaptation
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– produced by natural selection for current use
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Exaptation
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– not produced by natural selection for current use
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Spandrels
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– by-product of adaptation that develops into advantage
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Anagenesis
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One species evolves into another over time
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Cladogenesis
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One species splits into 2 species,
Typically occurs when part of population is isolated from the rest |
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Terrestrial
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1. (to ground from trees)
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key event in human evolution
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Bipedal
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2. (upright walking), More vertical body position
Hands freed from locomotion Shift of foramen magnum (where spinal cord passes into skull) Oral-pharyngeal cavities at right angles Larynx lower |
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Encephalization
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3. (brain expansion) Brain larger in relation to body size
Less olfactory area (smell) Less occipital (vision) More frontal, parietal |
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Culture
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4. (last key event in human evolution)
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homozygous
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same alleles for one gene from each parent
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heterozygous
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different alleles for one gene from parents
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Genotype
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genetic or allelic constitution of an organism, which genes/alleles it has
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Phenotype
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– observable properties of an organism that are genetically controlled
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Broca’s area
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speech production: Motor, frontal lobe
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Wernicke’s area
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speech comprehension: Hearing, temporal lobe
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Right Hemisphere
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Controls left side of body
Specialized for spatial skills |
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Left Hemisphere
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Controls right side of body
Specialized for speech and language Sequencing, fine temporal distinctions |
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Frontal lobe
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motor, sequential planning, executive function
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Parietal lobe
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sensory, spatial, putting together information
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Temporal lobe
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audition, memory
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Occipital
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vision
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Cochlea
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tonotopically organized -->
outer cochlea, high tones inner cochlea (apex), low tones |
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Outer ear
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collects sound, channels it
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Middle ear
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transforms sound to vibrations of bone
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Inner ear
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transforms energy to nerve impulses
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wave amplitude
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reflected in LOUDNESS
deciBels (dB) |
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wave frequency
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reflected in pitch
cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz) |
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Minimal Pairs
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They differ by one phoneme
They differ in meaning |
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Phoneme
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Range of phonetically close sounds perceived as a single class, Makes the meaning differ
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Phonetics
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Study of Speech Sounds (not a rule system)- Speech sounds, Complete array of sounds
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What processes does speech involve?
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Respiration, Phonation, Resonance, Articulation
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Using language in context
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Rule system = Pragmatics
Units = utterances -Tone of voice -Body language -Timing |
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Putting words together
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Rule system = syntax
Units = sentences -Negative -Interrogative (question) |
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Putting units of meaning together
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Rule system = Morphology
Units = morphemes -Plural -ing -Past tense –ed -3rd person singular -Possessive |
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Meaning (Semantics)- Words,
3 categories of early “definitions” |
1. Complexive concepts
2. Overextension 3. Underextension |
1. Complexive concepts-
“doggies” Small furry things? Things that move by themselves? Pets? Things that live in my house? 2. Overextension- “moon” – things that are round 3. Underextension- “cup” – refers only to a single cup |
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1. Phonation
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0-2 months – make sounds
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2. Cooing
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About 2-3 months – vowel sounds
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3. Vocal Play (Expansion)
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4-6 months
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4. Canonical Babbling
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About 7-10 months
Consonant-vowel sequences Reduplicative Variegated |
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5. Jargon
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12-13 months
May co-occur with words |
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Words
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Around 10-14 months
First word |
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Gestures
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Around 7-12 months
Clapping Waving “Up!” Pointing |
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Combinations: Two elements
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About 12 months
gesture + word About 18 months -2 years 2 word combinations (once vocabulary >50 words) |
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More complex combinations
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About 2-3 years – 2-5 word utterances, vocabulary up to 1000
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language well established
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About 4 years --> Complexity continues to increase
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Critical Period
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window of time early on
children need exposure to language |
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Innateness Hypothesis – Lenneberg
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emergence
decision external events teaching/practice Sequence Critical period |
Lenneberg formed a Critical Period Hypothesis theory which contends that language is innate but has to be attained before the age of puberty or else the ability to learn language declines
The most common contrasting viewpoint against the Critical Period Hypothesis is the theory presented by Noam Chomsky. Chomsky hypothesized that people are born with a set of rules known as 'Universal Grammar'; thus people can acquire language at any point within their lifetime as long as they are placed in an adequate learning environment |
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THEORY OF MIND
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Awareness that others have a mind like yours - the ability to attribute mental states— beliefs, intents, desires, pretending, knowledge, etc.—to oneself and others and to understand that others have beliefs, desires and intentions that may be the same or different from one's own.
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Kanzi relative to humans:
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Language test Results:Very similar to a two-year-old child, in terms of having considerable vocabulary, ability to combine two elements grammatically (Kanzi chase Sue vs. Sue chase Kanzi), understand basic commands, express basic needs/desires. Big differences in production – Kanzi use only lexigrams/gesturing whereas child uses speech/gesturing. After this point, they quickly diverge as Kanzi did not progress further but children progress rapidly.
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Chimp vs. Bonobo
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Chimp- Less group oriented
Male centered Conflict resolution = aggression Bonobo- More group oriented Female centered Conflict resolution = sexual contact |
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Primates
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Monkeys are NOT apes
Apes are NOT monkeys |
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If monkeys and humans share ability to perceive differences between classes of sounds, then...
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Our common ancestors probably could, Our skills in perceiving not unique to humans (phonetics/phonology)
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Vervet Monkey Warning Calls
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Eagle – two syllable cough - take cover, run into bushes
Leopard – (loud barking call by males, high-pitched call by females) take to small branches of trees Snake – “chutter” call, stand up & scan surrounding grass, may mob snake |
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New Caledonian Crows:
Evidence of Planning? |
Betty & Abel, lab situation
Food in tiny bucket Choice of tools straight wire hooked wired Oops, Abel drops hooked wire Betty bends straight wire into a hook Betty retrieves food |
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mode- (of communication)
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vocal-auditory, tacticle-visual, or chemical-olfactory
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semanticity
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there are associative ties between signal elements and features in the world; in short, some linguistic forms have denotations.
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pragmatics
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The ways in which context contributes to meaning
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interchangeability
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Ability to send and receive, play roles of both sender and receiver
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cultural transmission
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the conventions of a language are learned by interacting with more experienced users.
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arbitrariness
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the actual signal, or the form of the signal, is not related to its meaning
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arbitrariness
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the actual signal, or the form of the signal, is not related to its meaning
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discreteness
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simpler parts build together to make more complex messages – basically not true of non-human communication systems – messages are whole units, can’t be broken down into parts
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displacement
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The ability to refer to things in space and time and communicate about things that are currently not present. talk of past and present
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productivity
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can produce and understand infinite number of novel messages – open-ended system. (In non-human communication systems, can’t systematically combine units to create new signals)
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Noam Chomsky- Universal Grammar
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(UG): a theory that suggests that there are properties that all possible natural human languages have
- Set of rules -Grammar or syntax |
ex: If a language has a word for purple, it will have a word for red
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Chomsky led to assumption...-
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Led to assumption that there are different language modules in the brain, Modules for language connected, but independent in the brain
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Pinker & Bloom
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Language another complex behavior
Vision, the eye Echolocation in bats Human language |
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Levels of Communication
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Signals
Act or structure Alters behavior of receiver Evolved because of that effect Receiver’s response also evolved |
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Basic Communication Functions
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Mating, Survival, Social
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Development of signals
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Behavior occurs with activity (nonsignal, e.g. growling with fighting)
Behavior is associated with activity Behavior ritualized, predicts activity (signal) Sender conveys information to receiver (“Don’t mess with me!”) |
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Mobbing Bird Call
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localization easy, they join as a group to get rid of a predator etc.
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Warning Bird Call
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localization difficult, to alert other birds but they don't want to give away their location
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Birdsong Learning Stages
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Critical learning period
Silent period – memorization Subsong period – practice Crystallization – adult version |
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Cotton-top tamarin monkeys and human infants
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Sentences in Dutch and Japanese
Played forwards and backwards What happens? Discrimination forwards? YES Discrimination backwards? NO |
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