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25 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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How do male-male competition and female choice differ in monogamous, one-male, and multimale- multifemale primate social groups?*
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• Monogamous
i. Male-male: males tie their reproductive success with one female. They bear a large responsibility of caring for the infant since paternity is more likely in monogamous societies. ii. Female choice: (most) Females get to choose who their partner is. Some females to make sure that they get pregnant have extra pair copulations where the female will mate with another male to increase her chances of becoming pregnant. • One-male i. Male-male: (all or nothing) Large amount of sexual dimorphism where the males typically have large canines and fight for access to females. Rigid hierarchy. Orangutans are an example of extreme monogamy where they can control females with huge home ranges. ii. Female Choice: (least) mates with alpha male and possibly with lower ranking males if they travel into the territory and believe that he will one day also me a alpha male. • Multimale- multifemale i. Ex: chimpanzees, spider monkeys, and muriquis ii. Male-male: (not alpha male you still have a chance of having an infant) 1. Losing out on an opportunity to fertilize a female may not be as bad when the winner carries some of the loser’s genes, but still better to be father of offspring rather than just related to the father → male-male competition 2. Safari- subordinate male and female move stealthily off to a remote part of the community’s territory; risk attacks by neighboring communities 3. Mixed levels of sexual dimorphism-Male chimps 25% heavier and disproportionately larger canines; large testes relative to body size suggests at least some of their competition for fertilization occurs at the level of sperm instead of through direct aggressive challenges against their relatives; aka sperm competition iii. Female Choice: chimps 1. lots of males in the group because males are aggressive to get access. She can encourage the males to compete with each other to see which is the best competitor 2. Unfamiliar males→sometimes more attractive (not kin or increase genetic variation) 3. Closer to same size = can take more liberty in choice 4. Sexual swellings- can advertize estrus or confuse males 5. Behavior- presenting 6. Male-female friendships- olive baboon females help males integrate and males nuzzle and groom in return and tolerate other males’ infants |
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What is the priority of access model of male reproductive success?
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• Number of simultaneously cycling females
i. Men can only mate with fertile females and the alpha male has first access to the females • Male access-depends on male dominance rank and the number of fertile females cycling at the same time i. In baboons there is only 3 or less females but 5-6 females per group so low ranking males and less likely to have access ii. It is when high rank should lead to high repro success. Dominant males mated more often than subordinates and the top three ranking males accounted for most of the copulations that occurred around the time of female ovulation in baboons. |
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What does the priority of access model predict are the circumstances under which low-ranking baboon males will have mating access to females?
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• Coalitions- prevent priority of access to ever throw alpha
• Harassment and intimidation displays • Friendships • tenure of alpha male • knowing when to fight and when to mate with the female when he has gone |
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What factors affect reproductive success in high ranking male baboons?
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• Female group size
i. More than one male in a group is preferred so that other males can also defend the females • Coalitions with younger males against alpha male • Females prefer older males and so they may still not like the dominant male • Length of male dominance i. Longer the tenure the more infants that could be produced and higher the percent of infants that were sired. • Reproductive strategies i. The degree of cycle overlap among females and the number of estrous females. If all females have synchronous estrus, it is very difficult for the dominant male to monopolize all of them. Familiarity with female cycle may be an important factor in how priority of access affects repro success |
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What are two reproductive strategies used by langur males?
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• Multimale-Multifemale:
i. dominance rank ii. alpha mean 2.3 offspring • Uni-male multifemale: i. tenure ii. # of available iii. unimale females means 6.8 offspring iv. better investment than multimale v. dominant male might keep a son around to help protect against invaders. The son will help until it is his time because of the great mating opportunity. The father is also likely to help protect his son after he has passed his reproductive prime. |
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In what contexts does infanticide occur in langurs?
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• Follows takeover
• Unweaned infant • Unrelated to previous alpha male • Mother resumes cycles after infant death • Usually mates with infanticidal male • Mother will usually mate with infanticidal male |
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What counter strategies do female langurs use to prevent infanticide?
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• mate with infanticidal male if she lost infant
• Pseudo-estrus— (no external signals, use behavioral cues by presenting rump and shaking head even though female may not be fertile) • Leave troop and join new group for protection • Mutual defense—especially older females |
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What patterns of mating are observed in chimpanzees? In orangutans? In bonobos?
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• Chimpanzees
• Chimps can mate using promiscuity, alpha male, or consortship (go to the edges of the home range (males try to convince females). Ways they try to get females is by getting an erection and point it at the female and try to get her to follow him and if it doesn’t work he will force her. The key to a rise in rank is formidable display. Which can include, Bipedal swagger, Charging display, Surprise • Orangutans i. There is an alpha male who rules over a large home range with multiple females. There are also suppressed males who lack dimorphic traits and will force copulations with females. As a defense they will produce a long call that can be heard from very far away prompting the male to come to the rescue. • Bonobos i. Prolonged sexual swelling means that females are more receptive longer and there is less violence. 1. For foraging they feed alone most of the time and the average party size is around 2. The reason that are successful foragers is because THV is abundant which is a fall back food which is high in protein and grows in patches enabling them to feed in parties of 8 due to the lack of competition. Use sex for uses other than procreation and to reseolve conflicts ii. Mating is used as a means of greeting, conflict resolution, and post conflict reconciliation. Everyone participates in sexual acts with each other. No bias toward gender, age, etc |
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What are two possible functions of sexual swellings for a female primate?
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• Ovulation Cue
i. Shows when a female is receptive but can also be misleading as studies have show how it does not always mark the most fertile times. Dictates time for mating and whether ir is the best time ii. suedo estrus (langurs) –solicit from males when not on cycle • Fertility Indicator i. Indicates that the female always has good cycles and is likely to produce an offspring and having surviving offspring |
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How do female primates exercise mate choice in the face of male coercion?
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• Best mating still goes to alpha male with mate choice.
i. Optimal mating time for ovulation. * • Resources- male that can provide resources to females • Females more attractive to Males when they look/act/smell like ovulating • Promiscuity and non-reproductive matings; mate with so many males that none of them are sure of paternity • Making friends with other males- help to prevent male coercion • Perceptive behavior directed at a particular male by a female • Suedo estrus (langurs)- solicit males when not on cycle |
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Describe two supposedly unique human reproductive traits found in nonhuman primates.
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• Concealed ovulation
• Liteal phase where humans know they won’t get pregnant-not evolutionary • Continual receptivity i. Male will not leave female and so pair bonding can happen |
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How does sexual behavior vary over the menstrual cycle in primates?
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• For female primates, an estrus cycle (period of female receptivity) helps determine when a female will most likely be fertile. However, with old world monkeys and apes, that pattern is not necessarily followed because mating can occur throughout the menstrual cycle.
• More sexual encounters during estrus phase |
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What are 3 examples of violent male aggression in the great apes?
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• Infanticide Gorillas: normally occurs after a takeover. The incoming male will kill the offspring of the previous male in order to stop lactation in females
• Orangutans: forced copulations • Boarder patrols- chimps i. Seeking to kill if they meet a vulnerable party and some may be killed ii. For females it is better for them to mate alone (patrol parties can attack her and very vulnerable to aggression from neighboring groups) |
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What are 2 examples of developmental arrest in primates?
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• Male morphotypes of orangutans
i. Young males don’t have the same secondary sexual as the alpha male ii. Hormone levels are lower and cannot support development of the phalanges but they can produce • Mandrill males i. Males who are going to be arrested in development than the males who will have the full coloration and body size |
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What social, ecological, and reproductive factors help to explain lethal male violence in the great apes?*
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B. Evidence for violence in chimpanzees?
1. within group a. battering in rank rise b. coercion for sex 2. between group a. lethal raids C. Evidence for violence in orangutans? 1. forcible copulation a. small males b. hard for female to escape 2. prolonged, erotic with dominant male far away look in his eyes female eating D. Evidence for violence in gorillas? 1. infanticide by silverback leader 2. infanticide by bachelor silverback 3. mating initiated by female III. Factors that favor lethal male violence A. Social factors 1. territorial defense 2. male bonds 3. variable party size B. Ecological factors 1. costs of traveling in groups—extend travel 2. food resources—seasonal, annual variability 3. chimp food sources are small fruit sources so a consequence is that when they are small you can’t have too many chimps foraging together so females should forage by themselves -Danger to life is that when they are near the boundaries they are susceptible to male boundary patrols that are foraging and they will attack and kill C. Reproductive factors 1. infant slows down female • Reproductive patterns influence competitions i. Orang: only 3-4 offspring and so male-male competition will be high because there are less females able to mate |
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What ecological and reproductive factors may help to explain monogamy and polyandry in primates?
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• (male point of view) males have more reproductive potential and so they are giving up a lot for high reproductive success to be caring for one female
• Monogamy i. Ecological: resources are scare can need to be defended (gibbons to defend a fruit tree-small source) – benefit of males • Polyandry (one female, multimale) i. Males are contributing paternal care ii. Better survival iii. Ecological: isn’t an obvious ecological difference but more of behavioral and reproductive and there are a few more males defending a source and focus more on cooperative breeding iv. Females need assistance to get food and the infant would not survive without the help of the male most likely |
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What have naturalistic observations and captive experiments taught us about the tool-using capabilities of non-human primates? What factors may explain the differences between tool use observed in captivity and in the wild?
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• Chimp –termite stick
• Different opportunities for use of tools between species • Fruit resources allow for bigger groups and the traditions spread quickly • Captivity i. Bonobos have been successful in language skills but in the wild they are not observed to use tools often ii. One Japanese macaques (emo) washed potatoes in salt water and the cleaning of wheat and the new techniques were copied and spread through the group- very slow transmission (3 years ) too slow for copying (social facilitation) iii. Chimps do not want to participate in an experiment without a reason • Wild i. Dominance related to ability to using tools 1. Better teaching mother may have an influence on how lower class might not be as good at tools a. More things to do with tools since they have to find their own food and use trees b. More opportunities to learn from others |
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How do human and non-human primates differ in social learning patterns?
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• Teaching in humans. Humans are more focused on generalize cognition (language). Understand other’s emotions.
• Not Imitation necessarily in non-human primates but emulation more so as long as there’s a chimp model. |
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What are the costs and benefits of a reliance on learning?
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i. Imperfect behavior during learning
ii. Risk of abnormal behavior iii. Prolonged maturation • Benefits of learned behavior i. Plasticity ii. Attuned to environmental variability iii. Responses specific to circumstances |
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What have the potato-washing and wheat washing behaviors observed in Japanese macaques taught us about primate social learning?
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• One Japanese macaques (Emo) washed potatoes in salt water and the cleaning of wheat and the new techniques were copied and spread through the group- very slow transmission(3 years ) too slow for copying (social facilitation)
• The amazing thing is that the macaque was able to create a new way of preparing the food and that other members picked up on her tactics and learned how to clean the potatoes and separate the wheat from sand. |
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What evidence is there that primates have knowledge of the social relationships of other individuals?
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• The example with the baboon who was a sheep herder who would take wining children to their mothers at night and knew who their right mother was. This angered the farmers because they tried to pair up orphans with mothers that did not have a child and the baboon kept taking the child to a different mother.
• Hierarchies i. Lower ranking male leaves during grooming ii. Looking toward speaker calls and knowing the voice and knowing kinship |
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What evidence is there that non-human primates understand that other individuals have knowledge and motivations different from their own?
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• They can recognize themselves in the mirror and see most reflections as enemies
• Theory of Mind: they can realize that something from a different place has a different point of view and can lead to false beliefs (hiding behind a rock) • Deception: can create a false belief to deceive others and take advantage of another individual • It is apparent that primates recognize differences in individual knowledge and motivation when they not only suppress or hide certain signals, but also project false images or seem to react to non-existing external events to redirect another’s attention. |
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What evidence is there for deception in non-human primates and what does it suggest about their cognitive capabilities?
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• There are false alarm calls
• Concealing facial expressions • Mirror recognition • Anecdotal responses –white and burn (monkey intelligence) care takers that are typically deceptive and whether they trust their caretakers • Deception requires a theory of mind: primates must be able to attribute false beliefs to other individuals and try to make them believe the wrong things. They must be aware that other primates think differently than themselves. |
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Why are primates smarter than other mammals? What ecological, social, and reproductive challenges may have influenced the evolution of intelligence in our order?
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• Ecological
i. spatial maps of capuchin monkeys ii. memory of feeding sites iii. weighting distance and reward iv. Resource renewal-gum v. Hunting vi. Tool use vii. Extractive foraging viii. Food processing • Social i. Complex hierarchies ii. Alarm calls iii. Social categories iv. Alliances v. manipulation • Reproductive i. Long life histories to learn and need help 1. Grandmother effect- aiding daughters to raise offspring 2. Cooperative breeding |
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What are the major threats to the survival of primate species?
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Deleterious effects of human activites compound natural climate fluctuations, destroying primate habitats. Deforestation, fragmentation of continuous forest into selective fragments, selective logging where valuable trees are removed.
Hunting pressures-capture for biomedical research or zoological exhibitions or even for food |
