Anthropology Exam 2 Kingston

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Problems with Ape models:

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-which ape
-Great variety in behavioral adaptions and social organization
-All modern Apes restricted to forest, but hominids moved out of forest
-modern apes have many derived features, may not be like common ancestor

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Terminology of adaptive Arguments: Strategy=

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behavioral mechanisms that produce particular courses of behavior in particular contexts

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Terminology of adaptive Arguments: Benefits and costs=

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effects on fitness
-traits that enhance efficiency, skill

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Strategies females use to enhance reproductive success:

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1. Care
2. Competition
3. Cooperation

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Expect males to invest in young when:

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-finding additional mates is difficult when
-females widespread
-females mate all at the same time
-fitness of kids raised by one parent is low when
-infants are very big
-litter size is >1
-high risk of infanticide
-finding addition i

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Intersexual Selection

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trait that makes individuals more successful in same-sex competition: colors

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Intrasexual Selection

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selection within each sex: canines

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Runaway Selection

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where a feature is selected for but becomes ridiculously aversive to the animals survival (huge tail, huge antlers)

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Male/Male competition: Monogamous

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very little competition

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Male/Male competition: Unimale/Multifemale

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much competition (protect harem)

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Male/Male competition:Multimale/Multifemale

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competition to secure mates

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Female counter-strategies to infanticide

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-Females may try to confuse males about paternity
-Mate with multiple males
-Mate while not likely to conceive
-Develop relationships with protective males

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Females compete for:

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-Resources
-Offspring Survival
-Dominance status
-Male "friends"
-"Best" males for mating

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Altruism: Group selection

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group that helps one another out-reproduce selfish group

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Altruism: By-product mutualism

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behaviors look like they are altruistic but they aren't (no cost to actor)

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Altruism: Kin Selection

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-related individuals help one another
-phenotypically altruistic behavior is genetically selfish

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Altruism: Reciprocal Altruism

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"I help you, you help me"

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Hamilton's Rule

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(benefits to recipient)X(relatedness)> cost of actor
b x r>c

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Neocortex

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-unique aspect of mammalian brains
-outer layer of brain
-has expanded throughout evolution

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Grey Matter

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cell bodies that store information

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White Matter

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axons that connect to other cells (carry info)

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Allometry

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The study of how one part of the organism grows either in relation to organism

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(EQ) Encephalization Quotient

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Ratio of observed brain size→how much extra brain does the organism have
Actual Brain
--------------------
Expected Brain

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Gyrus

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folds in brain

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Sulcus

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areas tucked between gyrus

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Why would brains get big?

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-need to remove constraints (skull-size, temperature regulation)
-need to apply selective pressures (motivating factor)

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Expensive Tissue Hypothesis

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• Human brain accounts for 2% of body weight, but uses 20% of body’s energy
• We have large brains for body size but expected BMR for body size
• Trade off: for brain to grow, the gut must shrink through improving the diet (cooked meat)
• Higher quality diet→more easily digested→ gut needs less energy

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Social Brain Hypothesis

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Living in complex social groups requires greater cognitive capacity= need for greater cognitive thinking
-Individual recognition
-Memory for past interactions
-Understanding of others’ relationships:
• Alliances
• Kin

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Ecological Intelligence Hypothesis

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Harder to find resources in wild= need for cognitive thinking
•Clumped food resources require a cognitive map
•Know what is edible
•Where to find ripe fruit
•Know what sites have been visited
•Foods that are hard to access or process require extractive foraging techniques

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Olduwan Tools

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2-5 MYA~400-500 CC
-Associated with Austrlopithicus

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Acheulean Tools

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1 MYA~ 1000 CC
-Associated with Homo Erectus

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Sedimentary Rock

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Active deposition
-Terrestrial
-Marine

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Igneous Rock

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-Volcanic

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Metamorphic Rocks

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pressured/buried rocks

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Split from common ancestor

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7-10 MYA

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Faunal Correlation

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understand age range of fossilized animals : indirect

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Direct Dating

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date material of interest directly (teeth, bones pigment)

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Indirect Dating

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date layers above and below (general age)

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Absolute Dating

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any kind of dating technique that quantitatively calculates the dates for a layer of sediment or the item of interest itself. Examples include the various radioisotopic methods incl. 40K-40Ar and 40Ar-39Ar.

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Relative Dating

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Relative to other sites/horizons: faunal, paleo-magnetism

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Faunal Correlation

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When you find a fossil human, usually animal fossils are nearby and they can give a time frame for when the species could have lived

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Potassium-Argon and Argon-Argon techniques

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A parent isotope breaks down over time into a daughter isotope; eventually father decays into daughter

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Paleo-Magnetism

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Every thousand years, the poles switch, happens consistently throughout the earth's history and the Magnetic particles tend to align to magnetic field while cooling

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Curie Point

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temperature at which a mineral begins to cool and align with magnetic field

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Primates are linked with:

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•Tree-shrews
•Bats
•Flying lemurs
•Elephant shrews

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What is a Primate?

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•Traits associated with grasping
•Traits associated with leaping
•Traits associated with improvements to visual system
•Dental traits associated with herbivore

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4 Hypotheses for primate origins

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1. Visually directed predation and insects on terminal branches
2. Eating fruit on branches of angiosperms
3. Grasping-leaping locomotion
4. Grasping to exploit angiosperms food product and later orbital convergence for predation of insects

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Earliest Primate?

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Plesiadapiforms Montana (65 MA)
• No post-orbital bar
• Small brain

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Anthropoid adaptions

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-Diet
-Orbit size and convergence
-retina fovea
-post orbital closure
-sexual dimorphism
-brain enlargement
-locomotion

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Aegyptopithecus Zeuxis

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-early anthropoid
-grasping
-post-orbital bar

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Earliest Anthropoids:

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Algeripithecus Minutus -North Africa
Eosimius- China

-grasping
-eyes to the font
-nails

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Platyrrhine

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-flat nose
-dental arcade: 2-1-3-3
-3 premolars
-no ear tubes

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Catarrhine

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-Downward-nosed
-Dental arcade: 2-1-2-3
-2 premolars
-ear tubes
-less well developed post orbital closure

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Procounsul Africanus

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-long free limbs
-ape like dentition
-large body size
-no tail

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Morotopthecus Bishopii

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-Dental and facial remains primitive and large
-derived post-cranial
-flexible shoulder joint

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Sivapithecus

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-Includes several species
-derived relative to African Apes with functional complex of the nose, orbits, and palate that link it with orangutan

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Giantopithicus

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China:
-Huge teeth and bodies
-Terrestrial

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Hominids

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Modern humans and great ape lineage

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Hominins

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Only human lineage beyond ape split

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DNA Hybridization

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-compare 2 strings of DNA and see how they compare by unraveling them
-Tight bond→ closely related
-The more heat needed to unbind them is how to tell relatedness

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Obligate Bipeds

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highly efficient bipeds (like modern humans)

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Facultative Bipeds

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retained many arboreal features

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Positional Behavior =

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Positional behavior=locomotion behavior( compromised vs. committed) + postural behavior (resting)

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How to make a good biped:

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: a very complex adaptation modifications of lower limb and pelvis designed to reduce movement associated with a bipedal galt
→ increases the energetic efficiency of upright walking
-walking with bent knees/hunched= too much energy to maintain it
-foramen magnum moved more central to stand straight and be more energy efficient

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Human Vs. Chimp Skull

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Chimps: foramen magnum is toward back of skull
Human: head is balanced (foramen magnum directly over spine in middle) so muscles are for turning not supporting

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Human Vs. Chimp Spinal Column

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Humans: vertebrae much larger and more robust and the lumbar are curved

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Glute Muscles in Humans

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lesser glutele muscles no longer in back and is used to extend for tree climbing, but have moved to the side to allow weight to be put on one leg at a time (chimps can't do that)

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Pelvis Dilemma

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A relationship between size of mother's pelvis and size of infants head and yet still efficient for bipedalism

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Chimp Knees Vs. Human Knees

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-knees directly under bodies (Chimps)
-Humans have a valgus angle (knees can touch while hips are normal)

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Sahelanthropus Tchadensis

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. Chad
. 7-6 MA
. Small brain
. Upper canine
. Lower canine
. No canine diastema
. Reduced subnasal prognathism
. Non-honing C-P3 complex
. Large continuous supraorbital torus

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Canine CP3 Complex

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as upper canine comes down and sharpens/hornes bottom teeth

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Orrorin Tugenensus “Millenium Man”

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. Central Kenya rift 6 MYA
. Found first/upper half of femur (thighbone)-like teeth, looked very human
. Found pieces of humurus (arm bone)
. 5 of the creatures, in parts, overall

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Ardipithecus Kadabba

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a. found in Ethiopia 5.8-5.2 MYA
b. Very different C-P3 complex than chimps, disappears in later ardipithecus
c. Derived features linking ramidus to hominin
i. Incisors form morphology of canines
ii. Absence of honing facet on CP3
iii. Forward position of foramen magnum on basioccipital
d. primitive Features shared with Apes
i. Large canines relative to cheek teeth
ii. P3 highly asymmetrical and unicuspid
iii. Thin dental enamel

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Australopithicus Anamensis

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• Sloping mandible
• Parallel mandibular bodies and tooth rows (dental arcade is becoming more parabolic-between modern apes and humans)
• Earliest evidence for bipedalism (4 million years old) shape of tibia indicates obligate bipedalism on the ground
• Mosaic of primitive and derived features

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A. Afarensis

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(widely distributed)
• Includes “Lucy” long thought to be earliest ancestor
• Some from, hadar in Middle Awash, Ethiopia
• 47 out of 207 bones (pretty complete)
• Mature female individual

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Australopithecus Garhi (garhi=surprise)

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• Ca. 2.5 MA
• Candidate for homo ancestor
• Tool use before big brains
• Found with animal bones that have been clearly cut with stone tools and impact hammer fractures
• Meat-eating and tool use
• Olduwan flaked core from Gona

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A. Africanus: The Taung Child

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• Raymond Dart
• Juvenile
• Prognathism reduced, small canines, forward foramen magnum (bipedal)
• Lumbar vertebrae: 6 modern humans have 5, chimps have 4 (more you have, more isolated you upper isolated your upper and lower half of body)
• big toe is a little more divergent

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Lumbar Vertebrae

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6 in Taung Child
5 in modern humans
4 in Chimps
(more you have, more isolated you upper isolated your upper and lower half of body)

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Microwear Analysis

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see what the species has eaten

Front 80

Biochemistry of teeth

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see acidity rate
-shifts in foraging due to tools

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Why Homo Genus for Homo Habilis?

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-Endocranial CC 666
-Homo-like proportions in premolars and front teeth
-tools

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Homo Rudolfensis

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-Large brain
-modern post cranium

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Sharing a Landscape : 2.8 MYA

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Homo Rudolfersis, H. Eraster, P. Bosei, H. Habilis

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Erectus/Ergastor Grade

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group of organisms sharing a similar level of biological organization or system of adaption

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Endurance Running

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• Relative to other mammals, human bipedal walking is more efficient transportation; human running is even more different (endurance running)
• Endurance running-fast speeds sustained over time
• Animals each have an optimal walking speed-but human running doesn’t have this
-so, in some cases, if an animal is running so fast that it becomes less efficient and/or it starts having problems thermoregulating, a human can eventually catch it
• Endurance running based on musculature, could go far back (homo erectus compared to chimp)
-Humans have collagen-based muscles that can store energy

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Java Man

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• Homo Erectus in Asia
o Modjokerto-1.8 MA (much older)
o Sangiran- 1.7 MA
• This pushed the “out of Africa” date earlier to 2 MYA

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Firsts Reflected by Ergastor/Erectus

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• First appearance of hominis outside Africa
• First appearance of systematic hunting?
• First appearance of potential “home basas”
• First systematic tool making-Acheulian
• First use of fire?- little evidence
• First indication of extended childhood
• Reduced sexual dimorphism
• Modern life history patterns
o Extended juvenile learning period

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Savannah Hypothesis

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• Seductive with all deriving concepts
• The emergence to the savanna explained bipedalism and became a umbrella hypothesis
o Became understood that it was more complicated

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"Out-of-Africa"

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all ancestors of Africa and the modern H. Sapiens over took competitors
• No regional continuity of anatomy
• Replacement of archaic groups
• Migration events
• H. Sapiens from Africa

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Multiregional

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species evolved independently of each other to H. Sapiens
• regional community of anatomy
• no migration events
• no replacement

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Homo Neanderthalensis

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• Many skeletons, difficult to classify
• Highly robust cranial and postcranial
o Males have lager bones
• Cold adapted (not that simple-mainly younger time range)
• Costly confined to Europe and near East
• Significant temporal and regional variation
• Associated with Mousterian tool industry (not necessarily)

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Ultimate fate of Neanderthals?

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• Neanderthals killed off?
• Out-competed for resources?
• Interbreed and genetically swamped?
• Headed for extinction anyway?

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“Hybrid Boy”

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Portugal
• Brow-ridge
• Robust
• Neanderthal and H. Sapiens
o Inbreeding?

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Homo Floresiensis

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• Small erectus existing 14 KYA
o Insular dwarfism for large animal, insular gigantism for small animals (can’t use small size to hide so they grow larger)
• Liang Bua Cave (found small animals and hominid bones)
• Implications for thinking about human evolution

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Microcephili

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brain fails to grow to normal size→ reduced brain growth
• Thought to have evolved very efficient brains