Kottak Anthropology

Front 1

Anthropology

Back 1

The study of the human species and its immediate ancestors.

Hint 1

A uniquely comparative and HOLISTIC science

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Holism

Back 2

The study of the whole of the human condition: past, present, and future; biology, society, language, and culture.

Hint 2

Holistic

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Culture

Back 3

Traditions and customs, transmitted through learning, that form and guide the beliefs and behavior of the people exposed to them. It is LEARNED, SYMBOLIC, SHARED, ALL-ENCOMPASSING, INTEGRATED, and can be either ADAPTIVE or MALADAPTIVE.

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Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.

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Enculturation

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The process by which culture is learned and transmitted across the generations.

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Transmission through learning rather than through biological inheritance.

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Adaptation

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The processes by which organisms cope with environmental forces and stresses.

Hint 5

Organisms changing to fit their environment.

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Topography

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Also called terrains or landforms

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Forms of Adaptation (4)

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Genetic adaptation, Long-term physiological adaptation, Short-term physiological adaptation, Technology

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Voluminous chest, Efficient respiratory system, Hyperventilation, Oxygen masks

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Hyperventilation

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Increase in breathing and heart rate

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As a result, blood reaches tissues more rapidly

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Food Production

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The cultivation of plants and domestication of animals

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Originating 12,000 - 10,000 years ago to replace foraging

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Foraging

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Hunting and gathering of nature's bounty

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The sole basis of human sustenance for millions of years in the past

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6000 - 5000 ago

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Estimated time when first civilizations arose

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Egypt, Babylon, Mesopotamia

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Fields of Anthroplogy (4)

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Sociocultural, Archaeological, Biological, Linguistic

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Society, Artefacts, Physiology, Language

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19th century

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The origin of Anthropology as a scientific field

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Early American anthropologists were concerned with the history and cultures of the native peoples of North America

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Ruth Benedict

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“In World history, those who have helped to build the same culture are not necessarily of one race, and those of the same race have not all participated in one culture. In scientific language, culture is not a function of race”

(Benedict 1940, Ch. 2).

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Anthropologist of more than 60 years ago

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Ely S. Parker / Ha-sa-noan-da

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Seneca Indian who made important contributions to early anthropology

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Served as Commissioner of Indian Affairs

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Cross-cultural

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An essential approach to conducting anthropology

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The idea that sound conclusions about human nature must be derived from a comparative point of view

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Biocultural

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Combining biological and cultural approaches to a given problem

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A perspective that recognizes that cultural forces constantly mold human biology

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Cultural Anthropology

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The study of human society and culture. A subfields that describes, analyzes, interprets, and explains social and cultural similarities and differences.

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Ethnology and Ethnography

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Ethnography

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Provides an account of a particular community, society, or culture.

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Data gathering, organizing, describing, and analyzing in a fieldwork. Often descriptive and group/community specific

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Ethnology

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Examines, interprets, analyzes, and compares the results of ethnography.

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Uses data to compare and contrast and to make generalizations about culture and society. Usually synthetic and comparative/cross-cultural.

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Archaeological Anthropology

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Reconstructs, describes, and interprets human behaviour and cultural patterns through material remains

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Franz Boas

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Contact between neighbouring tribes has always existed and has extended over enormous areas

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said in 1940/1966

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Paleoecology

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Looks at the ecosystems of the past

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Ecology studies the interrelations among living things in an environment. Paleo means old.

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Biological/Physical Anthropology

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The study of human biological variation in time and space.

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Five special interests

-Human evolution as revealed by the fossil record (paleoanthropology).

-Human genetics.

-Human growth and development.

-Human biological plasticity (the body’s ability to change as it copes with stresses, such as heat, cold, and altitude).

-The biology, evolution, behavior, and social life of monkeys, apes, and other nonhuman primates.

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Linguistic Anthropology

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The study of language and linguistic diversity in time, space, and society.

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Historical linguistics considers variation in time, such as the changes in sounds, grammar, and vocabulary.

Sociolinguistics investigates relationships between social and linguistic variation.

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Science

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A systematic field of study or body of knowledge that aims, through experiment, observation, and deduction, to produce reliable explanations of phenomena, with reference to the material and physical world

(Webster’s New World Encyclopedia 1993, p. 937).

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Field of study that seeks reliable explanations, with reference to the material and physical world.

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Applied Anthropology

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Using anthropology to solve contemporary problems.

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Theory

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A set of ideas formulated to explain something.

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Hypothesis to Postulate to...

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Association

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An observed relationship between two or more variables.

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Cultural Resource Management (CRM)

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Deciding what needs saving when entire archaeological sites cannot be saved.

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Scientific Method

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Symbols

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Signs that have no necessary or natural connection to the things they signify or for which they stand.

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Language

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Hominid

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Member of hominid family; any fossil or living human, chimp, or gorilla.

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Hominins

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The term used for the group that leads to humans but not to chimps and gorillas and that encompasses all the human species that ever have existed. Hominids excluding the African apes.

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All the human species that ever have existed.

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Traits that relate humans to other Hominids

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Grasping ability and manual dexterity (especially opposable thumbs), depth and color vision, learning ability based on a large brain, substantial parental investment in a limited number of offspring, and tendencies toward sociality and cooperation.

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Opposable thumbs, Depth Perception, etc.

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Jane Goodall

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In 1960 began observing wild chimps, including their tool use and hunting behavior, at Gombe Stream National Park in Tanzania, East Africa.

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1996

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Oldowan Pebble Tools

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The world's oldest formally recognized stone tools (2.6–1.2 m.y.a.); sharp flakes struck from cores (choppers). Found in the Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania in 1931 by Mary Leakey and L.S.B.

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Archaeological evidence suggests that humans hunted by at least 2.6 - 2.0 million years ago, based on stone meat-cutting tools found at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania.

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Universality

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Something that exists in every culture.

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All

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Generality

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Culture pattern or trait that exists in some but not all societies.

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Some

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Particularity

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Distinctive or unique culture trait, pattern, or integration.

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One

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Subcultures

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Different cultural traditions associated with subgroups in the same nation.

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National Culture

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Cultural features shared by citizens of the same nation.

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International Culture

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Cultural traditions that extend beyond national boundaries.

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Ethnocentrism

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The tendency to view one’s own culture as superior and to use one’s own standards and values in judging outsiders.

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Human Rights

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Rights based on justice and morality beyond and superior to particular countries, cultures, and religions.

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Cultural Rights

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Rights vested in religious and ethnic minorities and indigenous societies.

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Cultural Relativism

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Idea that to know another culture requires full understanding of its members’ beliefs and motivations.

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(IPR) Intellectual property rights

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An indigenous group’s collective knowledge and its applications.

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Diffusion

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Borrowing of cultural traits between societies.

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Exchange of information and products

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Globalization

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The accelerating interdependence of nations in the world system today.

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Acculturation

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An exchange of cultural features between groups in firsthand contact.

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Independent Invention

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The independent development of a cultural feature in different societies.

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Bronislaw Malinowski

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An early contributor to the cross-cultural study of human psychology, famous for his field work among the Trobriand Islanders of the South Pacific

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Applied Anthropology

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Development Anthropology

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Field that examines the sociocultural dimensions of economic development.

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The branch of applied anthropology that focuses on social issues in, and the cultural dimension of, economic development.

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Increased Equity

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Reduction in absolute poverty, with a more even distribution of wealth.

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Overinnovation

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Trying to achieve too much change.

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Underdifferentiation

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The fallacy of the tendency to view “the less-developed countries” as more alike than they are.

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Urban anthropology

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Anthropological study of cities and urban life.

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Medical anthropology

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Examines such questions as which diseases and health conditions affect particular populations (and why) and how illness is socially constructed, diagnosed, managed, and treated in various societies.

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Disease refers to a scientifically identified health threat caused genetically or by a bacterium, virus, fungus, parasite, or other pathogen. Illness is a condition of poor health perceived or felt by an individual

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Health-care systems

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Beliefs, customs, and specialists concerned with preventing and curing illness.

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Curer

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One who diagnoses and treats illness.

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Scientific medicine

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A health-care system based on scientific knowledge and procedures.

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Paleoanthropology

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Study of hominid, hominin, and human life through the fossil record.

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Old human study

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Informed consent

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Agreement to take part in research, after being fully informed about it.

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Paleontology

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Study of ancient life through the fossil record.

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Palynology

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Study of ancient plants and environments through pollen samples.

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Phytolith

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A microscopic crystal found in many plants, including wheat, maize, rice, beans, squash, manioc (cassava), and other early domesticates.

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Plant Stone

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Remote sensing

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Use of aerial photos and satellite images to locate sites on the ground.

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Technology for finding Archaeological sites

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Anthropometry

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Measurement of human body parts and dimensions.

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Osteometry for skeletal systems

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Bone biology

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Study of bone as a biological tissue.

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Paleopathology

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Study of disease and injury in skeletons from archaeological sites.

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Molecular anthropology

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DNA comparisons used to determine evolutionary links and distances.

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Fossils

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Remains (e.g., bones), traces, or impressions (e.g., footprints) of ancient life.

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Traces of ancient life

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Systematic survey

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Provides a regional perspective by gathering information on settlement patterns over a large area.

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Settlement pattern refers to the distribution of sites within a particular region—how people grouped themselves and interacted spatially.

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Excavation

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Digging through the cultural and natural stratigraphy—the layers of deposits that make up a site.

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Taphonomy

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Study of processes affecting remains of dead animals.

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Taphos greek meaning Tomb

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Absolute dating

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Establishing dates in numbers or ranges of numbers.

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Radiometric techniques so called because it measures radioactive decay such as Carbon dating, Potassium-argon, Uranium series dating, Thermoluminescence (TL) and Electron spin resonance (ESR) which both measure the electrons that are constantly being trapped in rocks and minerals

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Relative dating

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Establishing a time frame in relation to other strata or materials.

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Dendrochronology

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Tree-ring dating; a form of absolute dating.

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Carolus Linnaeus (1707–1778)

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Developed the first comprehensive and still influential classification, or taxonomy, of plants and animals.

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Father of Taxonomy

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Evolution

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Transformation of species; descent with modification.

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Charles Darwin; Transformism

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Natural selection

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Selection of favored forms through differential reproductive success.

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The process by which the forms most fit to survive and reproduce in a given environment do so in greater numbers than others in the same population.

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Charles Lyell

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The father of geology. Explained Uniformitarianism meaning natural forces at work today also explain past events.

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Population genetics

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Field that studies genetics of breeding populations.

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Dominant

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Allele that masks another allele in a heterozygote.

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Recessive

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Genetic trait masked by a dominant trait.

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Chromosomes

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Paired lengths of DNA, composed of multiple genes arranged in matching (homologous) pairs.

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Humans have 46 chromosomes, arranged in 23 pairs, one in each pair from the father and the other from the mother.

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Gene

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Place (locus) on a chromosome that determines a particular trait.

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Allele

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A variant of a particular gene.

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Gregor Mendel

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Father of Genetics. Did his experiments on pea plants

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Mendelian genetics studies the ways in which chromosomes transmit genes across the generations. Biochemical genetics examines structure, function, and changes in DNA.

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Heterozygous vs Homozygous

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Having dissimilar alleles of a given gene vs. Having identical alleles of a given gene.

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Genotype vs Phenotype

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An organism’s hereditary

makeup and an organism’s evident biological traits.

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as Genes is to Traits

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Mutation

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Changes in DNA molecules

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Mitosis vs Meiosis

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Ordinary cell division vs process by which sex cells are produced.

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Skin cells vs Sex cells

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Crossing over

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Homologous chromosomes intertwine and exchange DNA.

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Law of Independent Assortment

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Chromosomes inherited independently of one another.

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Mendelian law that states traits are inherited independently of one another.

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Gene pool

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All the genetic material in a breeding population.

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Genetic evolution

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Change in gene (allele) frequency in a breeding population.

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Adaptive

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Favored by natural selection by the plasticity of Human biology

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Plasticity is the changeability through environmental forces.

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Sexual selection

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Selection of traits that enhance mating success.

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Color in birds

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Balanced Polymorphism

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Alleles maintain a constant frequency in a population over time.

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Selective forces working to maintain variety through stabilizing selection.

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Random genetic drift

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Genetic change due to chance.

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Anopheles

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Vector mosquito of malaria.

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Gene flow

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Exchange of genetic material through interbreeding.

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Speciation

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Formation of new species. Members can interbreed to produce offspring that live and reproduce.

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Microevolution refers to genetic changes in a population or species over a few, several, or many generations, but without speciation.

Macroevolution refers to larger-scale or more significant genetic changes in a population or species, usually over a longer time period, which result in speciation.

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Punctuated Equilibrium

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Long periods of stability, with occasional evolutionary leaps.

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Racial classification

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Assigning organisms to categories (purportedly) based on common ancestry.

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Disproved and discredited biological concept

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Cline

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Gradual shift in gene (allele) frequencies between neighboring populations.

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Haplogroup

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Lineage or branch of a genetic tree marked by one or more specific genetic mutations.

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However the range of phenotypes characteristic of a population may change without any genetic change whatsoever.

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Melanin

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“Natural sunscreen” produced by skin cells responsible for pigmentation.

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Tropics

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Zone between 23 degrees north (Tropic of Cancer) and 23 degrees south (Tropic of Capricorn) of the equator.

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Rickets

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Vitamin D deficiency marked by bone deformation.

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Thomson’s nose rule

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Average nose length increases in cold areas.

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Bergmann’s rule

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Larger bodies found in colder areas and smaller bodies in warmer ones.

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Allen’s rule

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Protruding body parts are bigger in warmer areas.

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Phenotypical Adaptation

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Adaptive biological changes during an individual’s lifetime.

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Lactose Tolerance marked by lactase production and the ability to tolerate milk depending on a population's lifestyle.

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Primatology

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The study of nonhuman primates—fossil and living apes, monkeys, and prosimians—including behavior and social life.

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Terrestrial vs Arboreal

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Ground-dwelling vs Tree dwelling

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Homologies vs Analogies

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Traits inherited from a common ancestor vs adaptive traits due to convergent evolution.

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Convergent Evolution

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Similar selective forces produce similar adaptive traits.

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Same traits because of same environment

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Prosimians

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The primate suborder that includes lemurs, lorises, and tarsiers.

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Anthropoids

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Monkeys, Apes, and Humans

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Grasping

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Primate feature originally adapted from arboreal life. Includes opposable thumbs, precision and power grip.

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Bipedalism vs Quadrupedalism

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Walking on two hind legs and walking on four legs

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Anthropoidal Heritage

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Grasping, Smell to Sight, Nose to Hand, Brain Complexity, Parental Investment, Sociality

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New world vs Old world Monkeys

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Americas, Prehensile,Platyrrhines vs Africa/Asia, usually Arboreal, Catarrhines

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Orthograde posture

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Straight and upright stance of apes and humans.

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Diurnal vs Nocturnal

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Active during the day vs Active during the night

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Sexual dimorphism

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Marked differences in male and female anatomy and temperament.

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Gibbons

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Small, arboreal, Asiatic apes. who are skilled in Brachiation or under-the-branch swinging.

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Living Great Apes scientific names

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Gibbon

Orangutan Pongo pygmaeus

Chimp Pan troglodytes

Bonobo Pan paniscus

Gorilla Gorilla gorilla

Humans Homo Sapiens

Hint 131

Biruté Galdikas - Orangutans

Jane Goodall - Chimps

Dian Fossey - Gorilla

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Behavioral Ecology

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Study of the evolutionary basis of social behavior.

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Eras and Periods

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Anthropologists are concerned with the Cenozoic Era, which includes two Periods: Tertiary and Quaternary. Each of these periods is subdivided into Epochs. The Tertiary had five epochs: Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, and Pliocene. The Quaternary includes just two epochs: Pleistocene and Holocene,

Front 134

Proconsul

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The group that represents the most abundant and successful anthropoids of the early Miocene. This group lived in Africa and includes three species; Sahelanthropus tchadensis, Orrorin tugenensis, and Ardipithecus kadabba

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Gigantopithecus

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Largest primate that co-existed with Homo erectus in the Miocene era

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Pierolapithecus catalaunicus

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The Miocene ape first described in 2004 that may be the last common ancestor of all the world’s living great apes.

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Cenozoic Climates and Life Forms

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Front 138

Stereoscopic vision

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Having both eyes directed forward helps perceive colour better.

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Ardipithecus

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Earliest recognized hominin genus (5.8–4.4 m.y.a.), Ethiopia.

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Sahelanthropus tchadensis

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Earliest Hominid dubbed Toumai found in Chad, Central Africa dating 6 -7 m.y.a.

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Orrorin tugenensis

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Hominid fossil found in Tugen, Kenya in 2001 dating at about 5.8 -5.5 m.y.a.

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Ardipithecus kadabba

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Earliest known Hominin found in Ethiopia dating at about 4.4 m.y.a.

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Australopithecines

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1. A. anamensis (4.2 to 3.9 m.y.a.)

2. A. afarensis (3.8 to 3.0 m.y.a.)

3. A. africanus (3.0? to 2.0? m.y.a.)

4. A. garhi (2.5 m.y.a.)

5. A. robustus (2.0? to 1.0? m.y.a.)

6. A. boisei (2.6? to 1.2 m.y.a.)

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Gracile

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e.g., A. africanus; less robust, i.e., smaller and slighter, than A. robustus.

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Robust

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e.g., A. robustus and A. boisei; large, strong, sturdy bones, muscles, and teeth.

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Hyperrobust

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e.g. A. boisei. Australopithecus species (2.6–1.2 m.y.a.), East Africa.

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Homo habilis

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Earliest (2.4?–1.4? m.y.a.) member of genus Homo.

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A. garhi

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Tool-making Australopithecus species (2.6 m.y.a.), Ethiopia. Garhi means Surprise in Afar.

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Dates and Distribution of Fossil Groups

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Acheulian

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Lower Paleolithic tool tradition associated with H. erectus.

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Homo Group

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1. H. habilis/H. rudolfensis (2.4–1.4) East Africa

2. H. erectus (1.9–0.3) Africa, Asia, Europe; Out of Africa

3. Archaic H. sapiens (300,000–28,000) Africa, Asia, Europe e.g. H. sapiens neanderthalensis (130,000–28,000) Europe, Middle East, North Africa

4. Homo sapiens (0.3–present)

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Pleistocene

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Main epoch (1.8 m.y.a.– 11,000 B.P. ) of evolution of Homo.

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Glacials

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Major advances of continental ice sheets in Europe and North America.

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Interglacials

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Extended warm periods

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H. antecessor and H. heidelbergensis

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Believed to be either late Homo erectus or early Archaic Homo found in Spain and Heidelberg, Germany.

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Mousterian

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Middle Paleolithic tool tradition associated with Neandertals.

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H. floresiensis

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A miniature hominid that inhabited the Indonesian island of Flores, between 95,000 and 13,000 years ago.

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Herto Skulls

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Very early (160,000– 154,000 B.P.) AMHs found in Ethiopia.

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Cro Magnon

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The first fossil find (1868) of an AMH, from France’s Dordogne Valley.

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Behavioral Modernity

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Fully human behavior based on symbolic thought and cultural creativity.

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Richard G. Klein

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Stanford University anthropologist who is a leading advocate for the idea that human creativity dawned suddenly, in Europe around 45,000 years ago.

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Sally McBrearty and Alison Brooks (2000)

Back 162

Conclude that what might appear to be a sudden event in Europe actually rested on a slow process of cultural accumulation within Africa, where Homo sapiens became fully human long before 40,000 years ago.

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Venus of Willendorf

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An artefact on display in Vienna’s Natural History Museum, dates back some 27,000–30,000 years as an apparent fertility symbolism.

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Upper Paleolithic Blade Tool

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Blade-tool-making traditions of early AMHs. Basic Upper Paleolithic tool, hammered off a prepared core.

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Clovis tradition

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Early American tool tradition; projectile point attached to hunting spear.

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Lapita pottery

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Earliest pottery found in Oceania. Fragments from the Solomon Islands, dated to 3000 b.p.

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First areas of Independent Food Production Invention

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Microlith

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Mesolithic tool type; greek "small stone"

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Broad-spectrum revolution

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Foraging varied plant and animal foods at end of Ice Age; prelude to Neolithic.

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Mesolithic

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Stone tool making period, emphasizing microliths within broad-spectrum economies.

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Neolithic

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Period when economies based on food production (cultivated crops and domesticated animals).

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Sedentism

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Settled (sedentary) life in villages.

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Natufians

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Widespread Middle Eastern foraging culture (12,500–10,500 B.P.). Collected wild cereals and hunted gazelles, and had year-round villages.

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Maize

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Corn; first domesticated in tropical southwestern Mexico around 8000 B.P.

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Manioc

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Cassava; tuber domesticated in the South American lowlands.

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Teosinte

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Wild ancestor of maize; grows wild in southwestern Mexico.

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Etic vs Emic

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Outsider observation of a culture vs a perspective of being inside the culture