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143 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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ethological:
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Scientific study of animal behavior in their natural environment
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teleological
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The study of evidences or design or purpose in nature; purpose and design are apparent in nature
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twin axes
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cultural forms and social rules
1. Social studies rules, or that which makes up structure 2. Cultural studies forms, the specifics of a particular society us vs britain |
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anthropology is empirical but not empiricist
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because it is obs and ethno... meaning and empirical facts
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two ways of approaching theory
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a. Foundational: Formulation of relationships or principles based on observed phenomena
b. Revelatory: Different people differentially situated. Theory produces effects that change people. |
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direct historical approach (steward)
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a. Working from known to unknown
i. 1. Sights of the period are located ii. 2. Cultural complexes of sights are determined iii. 3. Sequence are carried back in time to the proto-/prehistoric. b. gradually accumulating information c. archaeology serves synchronically for a culture and diachronically for sequences |
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monogenists versus polygenists
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i. Monogenists appear as defenders of orthodoxy; polygenists precursors of scientific progress.
mono: recent history; adam's babies poly: separate beginnings. |
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evolutionists were what?
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"men of good will"
did not attribute race until darwin fucked everything up assumed all could ascend to top and had equal mental capacity unilineal. social darwinism yielded pyramidal |
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what was the late 19th c concept of race?
antecedents? |
accumulated difference carried by blood.
i. Ethnological: prior to 1860, the attempt with a Biblical framework to sort-out the multiplicity of groups confronted. ii. Lamarckian: Inheritance of acquired traits iii. Polygenist: multiple independent origins iv. Evolutionist: single unilineal development with survivals (Tylor and Morgan) |
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19thc concept not racially______
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deterministic, because . Not necessarily racial determinism, however. Not always stating that race determines culture. In fact, this discussion is vacant for Tylor and Morgan who make broad generalizations across races for cultural characteristics.
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what is the antecedent to the comparative method?
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racial determinism
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rational behind "progress"
3 key aspects |
we must have progressed to see remnants of this progression (survivals)
unilinealism (hegel, kant, bible) Linnaean taxonomy made these decisions possible individual innovation becomes more important than diffusion |
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Effect of 19thC social darwinism
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racial determinism leads to anthropometry
Measurement of things related to intellectual capacities (e.g. long hands and scrawny beard=pick-pocket) iii. BROCA: polygenist committed to idea of separate origins and hierarchy of races; French; founded craniometry 1. Women have smaller heads, thus smaller brains, thus cannot handle university 2. Translated into social Darwinism iv. TOPINARD: broke pattern of Broca saying that pure races are nearly impossible to see today (Eskimo example) |
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Polygenist view of cultural difference
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Cultural difference is the product of physical difference
i. Pure race typologies ii. Built on the idea of racial essence 1. Carefully observed and measured physical differences iii. Contextually Reasonable: Bible speaks of the races of the world; |
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What did Columbus say of the races he encountered?
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there was an undifferentiated difference
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who was spencer?
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english philosopher who was the first to use the term "survival of the fittest"
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describe biological spencerism
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basic tenant: imperfection is unfitness to the conditions of existence
we achieve a higher degree of fitness through adaptation these changes yield NECESSARY progress it is in THIS context that darwin's ideas could gain credibility used lamarckism when putting realm of evolution into the social evolution has an end point (contrast to darwin) universal law of evolution: society went from simple to complex PROGRESS and LAWS Durkheim borrowed extensively |
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What did Darwin's mentor adhere to and where does he cop on this?
what did he study? what did he believe on racism? |
mentor was a Lamarckian.
father said his head had grown during his voyage theology at cambridge ardently against slavery |
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when was the voyage of the beagle?
how old was darwin? how long was the voyage? |
1832; early 20s; 5 years
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what effect did the voyage have on darwin?
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it gave him the tools necessary as through observation he shaped his theory on natural selection
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what position did darwin have on the voyage?
what was the voyages official mission? |
naturalist
it was hydrographical: survey expedition for the brits |
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where was jemmy button from
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tierra-del-fuego
horrible weather southern-most inhabited region on planet |
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what can we gather from darwin's diary?
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his sense of fear and anxiety about the fuegians (evident perhaps in how he signals what they do as mimicry...explain difference)
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what perplexed darwin about the fuegians?
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they were more interested in trinkets than the ship
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how did darwin describe the fuegians that made them less human?
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husbands treated wives as slaves, killed old women, yammerschooner: gimme!
or did the just say those things? gun had no effect |
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Fuegians lived in a lower state of____________.
Australians were ______________. what was happening to australians? |
improvement
a few steps higher dying rapidly from white men. darwin is proud of british cultivation of australia. |
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how did darwin feel of savages now versus those of our past?
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worse:
not even animals would commit infanticide yielding view that evolution is not necessarily progressive |
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about jemmy button
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surprised that he was of the same race; then by simply being there he reverted back to it
jemmy was "ashamed" family stole from him perhaps different family meaning? what does it say of culture that jemmy returned to savagery in a savage environment? |
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darwin as anthropologist
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was a participant observer
did do fieldwork THE MOMENT OF ENCOUNTER |
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The history of the individual recapitulates___________________
darwin |
the history of the species
young start savage like |
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Darwins theory on the Beagle supports what theory?
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Uniformitarianism: natural processes of the past are the same now and will be the same
Lyell |
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when did darwin write up his theory on natural selection?
what happened? when was it published? |
1858; wallace came up with the same shit
1859 "on the origin of species" |
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social darwinism
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varieties of men seem to act on each other as animals due....competition
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what does the descent of man?
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man has developed from some less highly organized form
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what is the thesis of the descent of man?
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man is th co-descendant with other mammals of a common progenitor.
Negro and White are a subspecies |
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how does darwin describe evolution as progressive?
what does this say about morality? |
characteristics not best fit fo survival get seeded out. however, like appendix, useles things still stay
civilization has better morality than non-civilized bc less civilized man often errs in judment. the existence of a deity means man is accountable to something other than man |
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What does Wallace say about intellectual capacity?
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it is the defining feature of being human and is only present in some races
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Where did Tylor work?
what is he considered the representative of? what is his background? how did this affect his views? |
Oxford; cultural evolutionism
a quaker: thus agnostic: saw religions as intellectual systems instead of expressions of belief |
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What is the "psychic unity of man"? Who is tied closely to it?
why was it doubted? |
The concept that reason is the same in all men and possessed equally by all
Tylor 60 years of degeneration theor |
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What trip influenced Tylor?
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contracted TB and moved to Mexico.
Critiqued the clergy |
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How did Tylor approach studying the early culture of mankind?
how did he do this? what was he searching for? |
as an inductive science- collecting and grouping of facts
missionaries acounts, journals, ancient texts, etc. similarities in human culture |
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how does Tylor account for similarities?
what does he emphasize over these? |
1. diffusion of knowledge
2. parallel invention evolution |
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What was the guiding question for Primitive Culture?
what was his response? |
Tylor wished to know how humanity's prehistoric, unwritten history can be known
1. uniformitarianism: humanity is consistent. lyell: uniform action to uniform causes 2. Survivals: various grades of uniformity are various stages of evolution...each the outcome of previous history |
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why does tylor think the process of culture is the same for all individuals?
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human minds are alike.
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Was Tylor a racial determinist?
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No. race does not explain difference.
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What is the key to the comparative method?
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similar objects are historically related
provides a basis for the history of origins (no, non, nein) assumes psychic unity of mankind "reason is the same in all men and equally possessed by all" |
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what did the comparative method do?
thus, what do ethnographers need to get a rough understanding of the history of civilization? |
made a natural history of human culture (lyell uniformitarianism)
ethnography and compared facts |
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what are survivals?
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processes, customs, opinions, etc. that have been by force of habit carried into a new stage of society different than their initial function
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How does Tylor classify cultural phenomena?
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In stages: stage by stage in a probable order of evolution
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Tylor and the crux of progress
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Just as cultural trait may be survivals of an earlier culture, so too can entire cultures
1.classification, 2. sorting, 3.evolution |
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how does tylor define civilization?
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general improvement of mankind by higher organizatin
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tylor
progress over simple to |
degeneration
complex |
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how does tylor view the individual?
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such regularity over mankind that individual difference can be ignored, just not the individual actor
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how does tylor define culture?
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that complex whole that includes knowledge, habit acquired by man as a member of society
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Where is Morgan from and how did this affect him?
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Raised on the frontier of New York during manifest destiny, economic expansion and collapse, and the American Civil War
Ardent republic, but often used to support Marx as he was materialist |
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Where was Morgan's main focus?
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on kinship systems and (subliminally) their ties to other things like economics.
also on material culture |
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unlike the critiques of malinowski, morgan did do what?
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extensive fieldwork on the iroquios (crow kinship system lauded by Lowie)
brought ethnographic data into the structure of his elitest men's club (imperialist nostalgia) first scientific account of Native Americans (Kroeber???) |
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what is a critique of Morgans methods?
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analyzed data with a single evolutionary framework
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How did Morgan use the comparative method?
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saw that different NA societies had shared kinship systems
performed a global inquiry of more than 139 different tribes to obtain information on kinship terminolog in N.America |
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What was the goal of Morgan's surveying?
what was his conclusion? |
To trace progressive changes in kinship systems
kinship systems could be divided into large groups each with subgroups (civilized have wives and monogamy. uncivilized use the same terms for everyone cause they are all doing each other anyway) |
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What classification did Morgan come to in Ancient Civilization?
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Lower Savagery up til fire and fishing and so forth until upper barbarism that leads to civilization with the phonetic alphabet
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How did man, according to Morgan, work through these stages?
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accumulation of experimental knowledge (followed technological advancement as it is necessarily processual)
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what two phases of gov does morgan see in the development of man?
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tribes and property
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note on morgan and domestication of animals
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very prevalent in manifest destiny chat
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morgan also saw that primitive societies showed lower phases of
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evolution
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how does morgan define culture?
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each stage has a distinct culture
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what were morgans contributions?
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kinship systems, research that systematic and global, organized into framework of cultural evolution
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Morgan, Tylor, and Spencer speak of civilization as a pre-destined goal
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christianity and industrial revolution
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Define functionalism
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the analysis of social and cultural phenomena in terms of the functions they perform in a sociocultural system
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how do functionalists view society?
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a system of interrelated parts in which no part can be understood isolated from the whole
a change in any part leads to a certain degree of imbalance that leads to other changes based on bio sciences |
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what are the three elements of functionalism?
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-interrelatedness of system's parts
-a "normal" state of affairs like that of a healthy organism -the way all parts organize to bring system back into harmony |
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Who was Durkheim?
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-French sociologist
-father of modern sociology -major influence on structural-functionalism (radcliffe brown) -did little fieldwork -jewish french family in WWI -lost son and all students to war but Mauss -conflicts going on for most of life btwn germany and france and french had labor revolts -napoleon -studied division of labor when marxism, paris commune, and industrial revolution changing everything |
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How did Durkheim believe society's must be examined?
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sui generis (uniquely and not reductionist)
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In contrast to Tylor and Morgan, Durkheim believed social phenomena must be studied
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based on varying conditions (much like in France)
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Durkheim did not look at biological or psychological interpretations and instead looked at
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social-structural determinants
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How does Durkheim define the individual?
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directly and equally attached to the society
shared normative values more important than individual ones but, from the individual comes the needs ad desires that shape society, but formed society reacts on the individual (mead at all?) |
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How does Durkheim define society?
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built on the association of individuals as they transmit social facts
ALWAYS contextual:) |
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Did Durkheim use the comparative method?
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yes, but does it by differentiating internal divisions into more specialized segments
chose to contrast entire societies to identify dimensions of social integration |
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What did Mauss and Durk do together and what came of it?
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Primate Classification
social facts and rules for the observation of them mechanical versus organic societies mechanical: small, few parts, large area, interdepent and autonomous relationships (could still fend for oneself), interrelations bound to common consciouness and punitive laws organic: complex, many integrated parts, people separate, but need each other; bound together by exchange and restitutive law. rule of law is moderating influence |
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what is a social fact?
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ways of acting, thinking, and feeling, external to the individual and endowed b the power of coercion. come from society and are external to the individual
-knowledge, beliefs, customs, fashions, etc. although defined as external, came later to the conclusion that can only work if internalized social phenomena live in their ability to exert power over the individual |
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what are Durk's rule for the observation of social fact?
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words: cannot just find meaning, but must also find cause and function
in determining production of a social fact, look at the social facts preceding it, not the individual thought to show how a fact is useful is no to explain why or how it generated (survivals exist without being useful) how it is useful though can show how it contributes to social harmony. |
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Deviance is a social fact that
inhibition? durk |
is necessary to strengthen normative consciousness (crime and criminality)
inhibition means social constraint produced a psychological effect-- a social fact was internalized |
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durk had a huge influence on religion
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religion is social in source
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durk and collective conscious
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this is how he defines culture!
highly misunderstood individual consciousness is a microcosm of the conscious collective (tighter in mechanical societies and more closely associated with religion and then phased out in organic societies) makes perfect sense if social facts have to be internalized it is not only being aware of something, but the object of awareness |
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What french father of anthropology was dedicated to the comparative method?
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MAUSS!
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Mauss did little fieldwork, BUT
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used empirical support for all generalizations
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Mauss, in talking of sacrifice, did what?
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precursor to rite of passage
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like durkheim, searched for
mauss |
elemental forms, comparative data, primitive societies fundamental patterns that we have lost
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for mauss, a natural object is
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produced into an artifact with social meanings
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The Gift
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Obligation Triad:
obligation to give, to receive, and to return gift full of power coercive gift-giving is steeped with morality by moving an object around the giver changes the fabric of society |
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Boas background
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born into a prosperous german jewish family whose father was active in the revolution.
group up in a time of obvious anti-semitism (CR!!!) educated as a physicist |
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what was boas' key nexus and commitments?
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the relation between the individual and society
Culture is a process of human reason culture is fluid and dynamic must study with relativism and in a local context-- ethnographic field research |
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did boas think cultural laws could be found?
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unlikely, culture is too complex
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boas: research first__________
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generalize later
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The Gift
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Obligation Triad:
obligation to give, to receive, and to return gift full of power coercive gift-giving is steeped with morality by moving an object around the giver changes the fabric of society |
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Boas background
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born into a prosperous german jewish family whose father was active in the revolution.
group up in a time of obvious anti-semitism (CR!!!) educated as a physicist |
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what was boas' key nexus and commitments?
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the relation between the individual and society
Culture is a process of human reason culture is fluid and dynamic must study with relativism and in a local context-- ethnographic field research |
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did boas think cultural laws could be found?
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unlikely, culture is too complex
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boas: research first__________
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generalize later
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Boas and empiricism
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used stats for phys anthro, science must begin with questions (judge later)
science is dispassionate (saying this at the time that social science is being made a field) |
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boas critique of tylor and morgan
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sweeping black-and-white judgments have no place in science
"we" are not culturally superior |
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how does boas define culture?
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a context for meaningful action
individual agency in a local context |
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Baffin Island Expedition
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german expedition to observe the inuit. -- people in environment
not happy with data, but it changed his views greatly "we" are not culturally superior |
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according to boas, what is the task of anthropology?
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to provide an analysis of cultures unique form and the dynamic reactions of individuals to it.
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In contrast perhaps to Kroeber's surveying, believed that traits must be studied in context of
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culture
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jessup expedition
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boas: culture and history of north pacific
focus on human migration from asia across the bering strait |
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Boas and craniometry
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nearly 17000 skulls
said more variation within populations than between no biologically pure races came out against nazism studied half breeds and they did not follow logic...brought back mendelian ideas |
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boas and culture
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cultures are integrated wholes, not evolutionary phases
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Boas students were plagued by what question:
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how ARE cultures integrated wholes?
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to answer the question of how culture is integrated, Boas students did what
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kroeber: superorganic
sapir: language and thought (conceptual categories embedded in language) benedict: core values of culture mead: human development |
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what was mead's mode?
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advocacy: wanted to change societal issues through anthropology
est. the institute of intercultural studies: anthropology of human freedom |
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why is it difficult to summarize mead's work?
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did not contain some grand conclusion, but a shift in view
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meads central thesis
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child-rearing practices shape personalities than in turn give specific societies their essential natures
baby arrives cultureless |
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Coming of Age in Samoa
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adolesence not traumatic due to more cultural fluidity
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sex and temperament..new guinea
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three societies near each other that are very different
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mead and bateson
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balinese character: 750 images
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mead also worked with
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the omaha
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what two big events were during mead's time
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depression and WWII (dont forget Boas against Nazis)
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Sapir
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Prussian Jew; relationship between individual and culture dynamically shaped by language
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sapir-whorf hypothesis
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a relationship between the categories of meaning foud wthin a language and the mental categories speakers of the language use to describe and classify the world
eskimos have numerous words for snow different languages make different systems of perception critique: we remember gist of argument but not words boas is the one who emphasized the importance of language in ethno. |
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how did sapir disagree with kroeber?
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superorganic bad: broad generalizations about society are misplaced (boas would agree, no?)
there are just as many cultures as individuals in a population "The Omaha believe...Two Omaha disagree with this" why? finding VARIATION (not similarity) is a great method of inquiry. individual opinions can counter generalizations about culture |
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how does sapir describe society?
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socialized behavior is simply consensus of opinion.
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who built the shell mounds?
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only a few thought it was the NA
before this many hoaxes trying to find our own homo erectus hearst funded nels nelson and juli to record data before |
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when did kroeber take over berkeley?
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1909- greatly influenced until ww2... all students must do NA salvage work
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all about Kroeber
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last anthropological generalist, born in the us at the dawn of native american independence
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key difference between kroeber and boas
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kroeber: logic of phenomena
boas: logic of the mind |
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kroeber and culture
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Learned and shared elements of customs and events
regardless of origins, becomes supra-personal and anonymous as fall into patterns of regularity through human interaction patterns: interested in broad patterns of culture (arrangements of systems that make culture more than a mere accumulation of bits) |
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kroebers survey
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culture element distribution list
had grad students send out survey to over 250 tribes yes no questions wanted to MEASURE interactions between culture. very driven by issues related to dying-out culture taxonomic like Linnaeus |
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Superorganic
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chain of parallel instances with inventions is evident of something greater at work-- greater than the organism
culture had a superorganic property that varied outside of the individual (patterns of dress length) |
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for kroeber, culture has a superorganic quality that is an autonomous system in its own right and ____________
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not just the sum of individuals, but is internalized by individuals
unconscious patterning exists beyond its individual human carriers; individuals are born into and are shaped by a preexisting culture that continues to exist after they die; the influence that specific individuals might have over culture is itself be largely determined by culture; thus, culture exists as a different order of phenomena that can best be explained in terms of itself; anti-reductionist |
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fundamental division btw brits and americans beginning 1920
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brits: analyzed different segments of society and institutions that articulate them (durkheim mechanical and organic)
americans: relationships between values and culture behavior. Boas: an explanation is a historical account and an expression of shared mental constructs. kroeber did not believe that findings could be made scientific(?) but did attempt measurement brits made ethnographies of societies and americans made them on the individual and how culture shapes the individual (very american). |
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background malinowski
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from poland and went to australia during ww1 and was labeled an enemy alien but ws given permission to study new guineans
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malinowskis writings showed what
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-reflexivity
-systematic collection of data -functionalist: interested in the utility of actions |
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how does Mal define culture?
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it functions to meet the cumulative needs that originate in individual biology
it is utilitarian, adaptive, and functionally integrated like he did with himself--- looked at needs of individual the lung is his bio reference |
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Mal's three ethnographic tools
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kinship charts, examination of imponderabilit of everyday, participant observation
cannot rely on what the native says, must analyze tied cultural process to specific basic needs |
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mal and myth
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must be seen in local context
controls moral and social behavior of trobriand islanders |
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mal: ethnographer must grasp_______
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the native point of view
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mal and lung analogy
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if we describe how a normal lung operates, the is process. why it operates that way is function.
analyzed on scientific principles |
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about RB
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THE structural-funtionalist
trinity college in cambridge australia desire to find regularities and laws (opp. boas) analyzed stories of crow to gain insight into native thinking. |
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how does rb define culture?
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cultures functions to maintain and reproduce society. it is a process by which people acquire skills, knowledge, etc. culture and traditions are aspects of social life.
structural functionalism still in political and economic anthropology |
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rb three concepts of social phenomena
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process, function, and structure
bio analogy: an organism has a life and a structure that is an arrangement of organisms. the processes depend on structure. the function of an organism is referring to the connection between the structure and the life process. it is the function of the heart to pump blood through the body. if the heart ceases to perform, the whole structure is in ruins |
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rb on boas
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history is not in culture studies
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culture and personality
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sapir, malinowski, nancy: nature versus nurture, mead,
culture is what shaped personality raw to cooked individuals through socialization key anxieties of culture from childhood traumas |
