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85 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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* gender similarities hypothesis
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* male and females are more similar that different
* better describes our world but our society tends to focus on the differences |
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* Gender
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* refers to the socially and culturally produced ideas about differences associated with being male or female
* Masculinity & Femininity is a socially constructed set of meanings, values and practices |
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Masculinity: |
refers to the meanings and expressions given to being a man in a society * multiple masculinities in a society; but usually only one dominant form* Expect different cultures to have different forms of masculinity |
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Femininity: |
refers to the meanings and expressions given to being a woman in a society * Multiple femininities in a society; but usually only one dominant form* Expect different cultures to have different forms of femininity |
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Gender Polarization: |
polar opposites, masculinity and femininity are polar opposites… A hallmark of our gender system in North America |
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GENDER CONFORMITY self determined motivation: |
how we feel inside, someone who identifies as the femininity that society sees as normal… because thats the way the feel inside |
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GENDER CONFORMITY pressured motivation: |
the accept the norms as femininity and will try to live up to these ideas even though its not the way they feel inside ** Both men and women feel pressure to live up to the dominant forms of either masculinity or femininity |
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Gender Violations |
* People who violate gender norms are often sanctioned by society
* and or at the very “least” feel shame about not being able to live up to these ideals, which can be very damaging |
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* The theory of Hegemonic Masculinity
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* claims that multiple forms of masculinity exist in a given society, but one form of masculinity is dominant (hegemonic) and culturally “idealized”
* Dominant form of masculinity is dominant to (1) marginalized masculinities and (2) femininities |
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* Hegemonic Masculinity
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* The traditional form of masculinity
* The dominant (stereotype) form of masculinity * what society deems is appropriate for men |
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Prescriptions vs proscriptions |
* Prescriptions: widely shared beliefs about what men and women should do
* Proscriptions: widely shared beliefs about what men and women shouldn’t do |
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Dominant stereotypes of Men and Women |
* Men are expected to be Agentic (agency: the capability to act independently)
* Women are expected to be Communal (community: important to belong to a community) ** these are dominant stereotypes |
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Agentic prescriptions and proscriptions |
* prescriptions: Associated with leadership and workplace achievement, such as competitiveness, power-seeking, assertiveness **nothing innate or universal about these traits
* Violations/ transgressions of gender prescriptions can result in penalties such as, devaluation, punishment, discrimination * Proscriptions: Emotional, Approval Seeking, Impressionable, Yielding, Shy, Moody, Melodramatic, Naive ,Gullible, Weak |
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Active construction: |
* Masculinities are neither programmed in our genes, nor fixed by social structure, prior to social interaction. They come into existence as people act. They are actively produced, using the resources and strategies available in a given society.
* Both men and women in a society tend to hold the same stereotypes about their own gender and the other gender |
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Two of the Main Prescriptions of Traditional Masculinity
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1. Breadwinner: To be a man = to be a provider, money-earner
2. Tough guy masculinity: Projection of Physical Toughness & Emotional Stoicism |
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* Emotional Stoicism
* Physical Toughness |
* Emotional Stoicism: someone seemingly unaffected by emotions, what is expected of a man
* Physical toughness is important to the presentation/ performance of the hegemonic masculinity |
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Embodied Masculinity |
* Trend towards male bodies that demonstrate physical toughness or strength in the media/ pop culture
* Adonis Complex: |
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Adonis Complex:
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* expect men to look like greek gods
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The “Body-as-Self” Paradigm |
* if you look good, you feel good
* applied to men and women * self- worth is tied to your appearance |
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The “Body-as-Self” Paradigm * Consequences: |
* The body is on display like never before
* We are encouraged to buy things to fix/ transform our bodies like never before |
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Male Body Image & Action Figures |
* action figures are male analogs for Barbie
* physiques exceeding levels of human attainment * biceps size (etc) increase over time |
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A new male body ideal |
* male body type may have changed
* the strong skinny type (ex: Adam Levine) * this look is also constructed and difficult to achieve |
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The Main Proscription of Traditional Masculinity |
* Repudiation of the Feminine” = “No Sissy Stuff”: men should not do/be anything that is considered feminine
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Movie: Tough Guise 2: |
that our society links being a man with toughness/ “warrior” masculinity/ using violence/ threat of violence and that our society/cultural systems/ media teaches boys and men that “Tough Guy”/ Violent Masculinity is acceptable |
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2. Not all men, perhaps few men, desire/want to live up to the hegemonic “ideal” – but they may feel immense pressure to |
** |
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Pressure on CND boys |
* 2011 Plan Canada survey to explore teenagers’ perceptions and stereotypes about gender\
* 91% of Canadian teenagers said they agree gender equality is good for both men and women * 96% believe girls should have the same opportunities and rights as boys to make their own choices in life * 95% parents must take equal responsibility for their children * Although 78% of teenagers surveyed disagree with the statement “boys should not cry” – 77% believe boys are likely to be made fun of if they cry * 92% of teenagers surveyed said Canadian boys are likely to be made fun of if they play with dolls; wear pink (62%) or are bad at sports (57%) * 45% of CDN teenagers agree that “to be a man you need to be tough” vs. 13% in U.K. vs. 26% in Rwanda |
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* The Hegemonic Masculinity is constantly challenged not only by Marginalized Masculinities but also by social and economic factors (e.g. men’s unemployment)
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Redefining Masculinity |
* There is abundant evidence that masculinities do change. Masculinities are created in specific historical circumstances and, as those circumstances change, the gender practices can be contested and reconstructed.” (Connell 2000)
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Hierarchy |
* Hegemonic masculinity >> marginalized masculinities and fepmininites
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* all femininities are subordinate to hegemonic masculinity
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** |
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* Emphasized Femininity:
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* dominant to other Femininities, least challenging to /best accommodates the Hegemonic Masculinity. (Emphasized Femininity” = Cultural Norm = Communal Woman)
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Communal Prescriptions & Proscriptions |
* Prescriptions: Warm & kind, Interest in children, Loyal, Sensitive, Friendly, Attn. to appearances, Patient, Polite, Cheerful, Cooperative
* Proscriptions: Rebellious, Stubborn, Controlling, Cynical, Promiscuous, Arrogant |
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Embodied Femininity |
* The most important component of “Embodied Femininity” in North America is thinness
* Canadian Women’s Health Network (2016): Female models have been getting thinner and thinner over the past 20 years: Average CDN woman weighs 148 pounds (height 5’4”); average model weighs 23% less. 20 years ago average model weighed 8% less. * Not Only Thin, But “Curvaceously-Thin”: In recent decades, two conflicting images appear to have merged into a modern synthesis of what is considered beautiful: an almost unhealthily thin and bony frame, combined with a substantial bust.” * Point being: this “ideal” is constructed & difficult to achieve! |
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Advertising and the “Tyranny of Appearance” |
* Advertising directed at women focuses on a woman’s weight and/or appearance
* Women are bombarded with unrealistic images of femininity |
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Stats from: Canadian Women’s Health Network (2016) |
* In Canada today, almost 90 per cent of women and girls are unhappy with the way they look
* Canadian girls are starting to diet younger than ever before, sometimes starting as early as 5 or 6 years old * One out of 10 Canadian girls and women develops disordered eating behaviours such as anorexia, or bulimia |
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Measuring Up To Barbie |
* Barbie “crystallizes some of the predicaments of femininity and feminine bodies in [21st] Century North America
* Barbie contributes to the: Tyranny of Slenderness and Appearance |
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Tyranny of Slenderness
Tyranny of Appearance |
1. “Tyranny of Slenderness”: being slender is most desirable form in society for women
2. “Tyranny of Appearance”: girls learn importance of appearance. That appearance is most important |
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Femininity in Venezuela |
1. The recent rise of the constructed ‘curvaceously- thin’ ideal in Venezuela: e.g. cosmetic surgery & the Miss Venezuela Pageant; & the average woman
2. The discussion of the emergence of the ‘body-as-self’ paradigm 3. The gendering of cosmetic surgery in Venezuela |
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Motherhood mandate |
1. In our society there is an very strong overlap between what it means to be woman and being mother ex: Jennifer Aniston pregnancy rumours
2. its not just being a mother you need to be a certain type of mother = Mother hood stereotype |
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Myths of Motherhood stereotype vs Reality 3 |
1. Mothering (“mother love”) is believed to be innate & instinctive, not learned or conditional on circumstances
2. reality: many women don’t have motherly instincts 3. Mothering is considered to be primarily an engagement of love 4. reality: don’t have a clue how to raise, it is a lot of work 5. Mothering is considered to be primarily an individual engagement between mother and child, rather than a social one* reality: this is an unrealistic expectation and not the case in other countries: other countries don’t have an ideology of “intensive mothering |
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Intensive of mothering: |
* new idea of North American mothering. mothers are able to do everything, standards mothers are judged on
* cultural ideal of childcare, socially constructed * in Canada 73% of women with children under the age of 16 are employed * A recent study shows that internalizing some of these beliefs of intensive mothering, is correlated with negative mental health outcomes for women |
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Intensive of mothering * France: |
* no ideology of intensive mothering
* highest birth rate in europe * Government may support for parents (generous maternity leave, etc) * a nonchalant approach to motherhood means women are not limited to the identity of mother (no concept of a good mother) |
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Shared Mothering |
* Murik people of Papua New Guinea
* Mothering” is not just done by the mother, but by multiple caregivers * Humans are Cooperative Breeders: |
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* Cooperative Breeders:
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* Species with allomothering (other mothers) assistance in both the care and provisioning of young
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Traditional thinking about Caribbean families |
* Economic Necessity” perspective: Female headed households (by mothers or other female kin) were a response to Poverty/ Unstable Wages/ Migration by men
* Non-nuclear families were thought to be deviant structures:Detrimental to well-being of family members * The grandparents willingness to look after their grandchildren may allow their daughters and sons to migrate“ |
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* Motherhood mandate” (North America) is culturally prescribed
* Content of Motherhood Stereotype in North America is unrealistic and not found in all other societies |
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Motherhood in Brazil |
* Life expectancy in this part of Brazil: 40 years
* High child mortality rate * $1/ day * Lots of pregnancies: Children are considered old age security because of no help form government and low number of contraceptives * ‘Mortal selective neglect’ or ‘passive infanticide’ * she had already come to think of as an ‘angel’ (children that won’t survive) rather than a son or daughter * Part of being a mother in these circumstances is learning when “it is safe to let oneself love a child” because of the frequent child death * these women are making rational decisions |
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* “Mother love” is not necessarily universal and immediate. As hard as it may be to believe it, a mother’s response/love/care for her children is not always immediate or forthcoming; but dependent on her circumstances—economic, social, her health, the help she has... |
** |
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Getting a Job Mothers vs NonMothers |
* Competence ratings for mothers 10% lower than non mothers
* Commitment ratings 15% lower for mothers * Recommended starting salary for mothers was 7.4% less (-$11,000) * Participants recommended 84% of non mothers for hire; but only 47% of mothers |
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“motherhood penalty” |
Mothers in the workforce are discriminated against in terms of hiring and wages (NA) 1. Opt-Out- Revolution2. Motherhood Wage Gap |
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1. Opt-Out- Revolution”
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* The idea that ‘high-achieving’ or ‘professional’ women are choosing to leave the workplace for motherhood.
* not accurate * Stats = NO OPT OUT * Most CDN mothers work outside the home * The employment rate of CDN women has been steadily rising |
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1. Motherhood Wage Gap
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* earnings losses incurred by mother, due to women’s exit from labour market du to child care responsibilities
* This gap has been found in more than a dozen countries in Europe and North America * STATS: after birth…not until 8 years later did the women’s salary go back to normal * mothers make 12% less than childless woman * when we add more children the salary keeps going down |
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Hierarchy of Women’s Pay (Stats Canada 2009) |
* Single woman who are childless; married woman who are childless
* Married woman with children * Single woman with children: make 20% less than single women who are childless |
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** Ideology of Motherhood is different than the Experience/ Practices of Motherhood is different than the Institution of Motherhood ** The “Idealization” of Motherhood in our society does not describe the Practices of Motherhood nor does it positively influence a Mother’s experience in the job market (Institution of Motherhood) |
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Fatherhood Ideologies in North America (2) |
1. still dominant “traditional model of fatherhood” = father as “breadwinner”
2. alternate, “emerging” model= father as active care- taker |
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Breadwinning: Traditional Fatherhood model |
* provide for his family
* primary role = occupational * there is something wrong with adult male who doesn’t have a job * Being a man in our society more strongly overlaps with worker/ producer/ breadwinner rather than with Man/Father |
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Who are the most “Appropriate” Fathers? “Positive” and “Negative” Stereotypes |
* married and adoptive = positive
* divorced residential fathers, gay fathers and step fathers = neutral * divorced non resident father and never married fathers = negative * Fatherhood within a nuclear family was viewed more positively than other contexts |
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Fathers as Active Care-Takers |
* recent in our society
* fathers who take emotional and physical responsibility for nurturing in there children * Two indicators of this shift: * Canada 2001: 3% of Canadian men took parental leave; in 2010 30% * Norway = 90% of fathers take leave, shared parental leave so women and men can have a career * 2. Primary Care Stats: (consists of activities directly involving children, such as feeding, helping, teaching, etc.) increased (57% vs 73%) |
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According to Stats CND what are some of the reasons we see this increasingly active role in parenting for CDN fathers? |
1. women’s increased participation in the working force
2. A less traditional division of labour in the house 3. Desire of fathers to be with their children |
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“Traditional” Fatherhood & the Workplace |
* Traditional notion of fatherhood role is not incompatible with being an ideal worker
* Fatherhood Bonus |
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* Fatherhood Bonus
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* Fathers rated as more committed than Nonfathers Fathers & NonFathers rated similarly competent
* Fathers were offered significantly higher salaries than NonFathers * this bonus can be attributed to the stereotype that men become even more dedicated to their work after having children because they are [assumed to be] the breadwinners for their families. |
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Takehome Points: |
* Fathers do not experience the same workplace disadvantages as Mothers
* Traditional conceptions/ideology of fatherhood role as “breadwinner” role in our society are compatible with our notions of the “ideal worker” |
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* Fathers as active care-takers among the Aka foragers of Central Africa
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1. Communal net hunts: “If men are going to help with infant care on a regular basis they have to be near the infant a good part of the day
2. Affectionate father-infant bonding is expected: “Aka ideology of good and bad fathers reiterates the importance of father’s proximity” “Fathers embrace their parenting role as much as they embrace their hunting role” |
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The Biology of Fatherhood |
* Biology of Fatherhood: males (in some species) experience physiological changes associated with birth
* Example of Marmosets & Tamarins ( |
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* Marmosets & Tamarins
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* (South American monkeys) = fathers are active care-givers. Fathers carry infants, provide food
* Males who participate in caregiving had higher levels of prolactin than other males , Father’s testosterone levels decrease * The more time men spent caring for children — playing, feeding, bathing, reading or dressing them — the lower their T levels * Implications 1. Men’s parenting behaviour changes their hormonal profiles 2. Implies that active care-taking by males has likely been an integral part of human history |
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The Domestic and Public Spheres: |
* Another component of Gender Stereotypes: Traits, activities & roles “assigned” to masculinity or femininity tend to fall into two different “spheres
* Men associated with the Public Sphere * Women associated with the Domestic Sphere * Sexual Symmetry means its universal (how we used to think) |
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Domestic Sphere |
* the physical location & types of activities that take place in association with the home.
* Household Labour: unpaid tasks performed to satisfy the needs of family members or to maintain the home and family possessions * These tasks are gendered Feminine Unpaid work |
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Unpaid work |
* Unpaid tasks are considered “unproductive” according to the universally accepted United Nations System of National Accounts (that in part makes up the GDP or Gross Domestic Product)
* But unpaid work has economic value * Statistics Canada has calculated that unpaid work is estimated to be worth 33% of the GDP (1998) * In 1998, the most recent year we have data for, unpaid work was estimated to be worth $297 billion in the money economy * it also has implications for the “Hidden costs of economic growth” (Stats Canada 2003) * Stats Canada says women accounted for 62% of the total estimated value of unpaid work in 1998 * Implications: * Rosaldo didn’t think that women’s “Domestic orientation” was a “necessary one” . “In other words, biology is not destiny” * the association between women & the Domestic was “structurally and culturally constructed” (p. 81) – a major factor |
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Public Sphere |
* Public domain includes political and economic activities that take place beyond the localized household unit
* Paid labour = “productive” tasks according to UN System of National Accounts = gets included in the GDP * Gendered Masculine |
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Comparing the Public vs Domestic |
1. Activities that take place in the Public Sphere tend to be more highly valued by society than activities that take place in the Domestic Sphere (e.g. gender asymmetry)
2. This is not to say the work in the Domestic is not important or rewarding; BUT Public sphere is associated with greater power than the Domestic* POWER: The ability to act effectively on persons or things; to take or secure favourable decisions (MG Smith (1960) |
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Does the Domestic/ Public Split occur in Canada? - Primary Child care - Household labour |
PRIMARY CHILD CARE IN CANADA STATS CANADA STUDY 1 (2005) 1. Men’s participation in primary care is higher in 2005 vs 19862. Women’s participation in primary care is: higher than men’s overall; higher in 2005 vs 1986 3. - Men do less household work hours than women but have increased since 1986 4. Women do more household work hours than men but have decreased since 1986 5. CND men are doing more work than the average 6. CND women are doing less than average work hours 7. CND men are doing more household labour than in the past 8. BUT CND woman are still doing more household work than men ** So yes there is still spit in Canada but we are seeing a “converging of gender roles” in the home. Not convergence, not equal, but converging. More egalitarian division of household labour |
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The Public Sphere in Canada |
* Women make up 47% of the workforce in Canada (2010)
* Stats Canada: Employment rates of women and men, 1976 to 2009 * 2009: about the same men and women are in employed in CND * This equality does not extend to the top levels of business & politics… CE0 (or equivalent top leadership position) = 5% are women |
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Why are only 5% of CEOs women? The 3 most common attempts to explain this situation: |
1. Pipeline Problem/ “Just Give It time” argument: not enough women are not qualified to fill the CEO spots.. give it time women will get better education etc and it will change
2. “Double-Bind”: Gender Stereotypes lead to disadvantages at top levels of business/leadership 3. “Opt-out” Revolution: myth not in CND, women choose not to be in the work place 4. Not “Leaning In”: Women haven’t mastered career advancement skills. |
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Pipeline Problem: Are Canadian women in the pipeline as students and graduates
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1. AS STUDENTS
2. Across Canadian universities, women make up a large proportion of the students in MBA programs 3. At U of C, the proportion of women in the MBA program is 40% 4. One study found that for the first time, graduate schools in the US & Canada had more female prospective MBA students than male. In 2014, 52% of prospective MBA students were female in the US & Canada 5. AS GRADUATES* Stats Canada provides data on university graduates in Business, Management and Public Administration programs at CDN universities for 1992 & 2008 * In 1992, women made up 51% of university graduates in Business, Management and Public Administration programs . * In 2008, 53% of grads in these programs were women (Stats Canada 2012: Women in Canada at a Glance) * Women are in the pipeline |
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** |
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* 5% of CDN CEOs are women vs
* 50%+ graduates in Business, Management and Public Administration programs at CDN universities are women (and have been since the early 1990s) * I call this the 5/ 50 paradox: suggest the pipeline argument is a weak excuse for why women are underrepresented in CEO jobs * There is a lack of diversity in CND politics |
** |
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The “Double-Bind" for Women |
* Women can succeed in jobs stereotyped as “Masculine”;
* but may experience a “Double-Bind” Meaning, on one hand they can be seen as competent, they have the “agentic” skills for the jobs But on the other, they are assumed to lack communal qualities * Agentic Women” are frequently viewed as hostile, cold, deceitful, bitter, selfish, devious and personally disliked |
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Women & Politics |
* Backlash effect:
1. Voters were significantly less likely to vote for the power-seeking female politician 2. feelings of “moral outrage” were stronger for the power-seeking female politician vs the female politician not expressing the power- seeking condition 3. For the male politician, power-seeking information did not increase feelings of moral outrage 4. female power-seeking politician was seen as less communal |
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* Backlash effect:
* Moral outrage |
* Backlash effect: refers to the negative characterization given to women who exhibit agentic behavior
* Moral outrage: It is a response to behavioural transgressions driven by the power seeking female lacking communality |
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* Gender stereotypes about agency and communality are very pervasive
* But remember gender is malleable; our ideas about gender are not fixed; the traits we associate with masculinity and femininity are changeable (e.g. the Jane & Perry study) |
Take-home messages
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Yoruba Women’s Participation in, & Control of, the Market |
1. Women participate in the market as traders (women make up the majority of traders in many Nigerian markets) Women trade to make money to support their children/ families
2. Powerful women control the market as heads of trading guilds. Providing opportunities to interact with and negotiate with political authorities |
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Asante Market Woman |
* Ghanaian women are in charge of the produce section of Kejetia market
* yams * Women control the market through the “Queen mothers * The communal stereotype of femininity does not describe the Asante * Generally elected, but some gain their position (Oba) through influence = illustrates the connections between the market and political structures in society1. Matrilineal Society: 2. Extended families the norm |
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1. Matrilineal Society:
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1. one’s descent group would consist of all members related to a person through connection with a women* your mother, her mother, your brothers, and your sisters, your mother’s brothers and sisters and your mother’s sisters’ and brothers’ children
* husbands provisions go to mother’s side |
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1. Extended families the norm
- consanguinity and conjugality |
* Consanguinity: relationships by blood; the people to who you are related by blood
* Asante: women’s relationships are built around Consanguineal relationships * Conjugality: relationship by marriage; the relationship between husband and wife (not as important) * Women as wives generally exhibit deference to th |
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Men are employed by women in the markets * Opa was never elected. She went to King and the royal head-woman gave her authority *a man sells gun powder, not vegetables * Women work hard to support children when husband dies * Son’s doesn’t get money from father… it goes to his sister’s children * Polygyny: Marriage is only important for children, “forces” women to work hard to support her family because often their husbands will leave * Most important relationship is with mother and children |
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