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577 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
____are members of the
evolutionary lineage that includes ourselves, modern Homo sapiens |
Hominins
|
|
Habitually walking bipedally (on two feet)
is a critical feature of ____. |
Hominins
|
|
Humans are members of the Order___.
|
Primates
|
|
Primates, the group of mammals that
includes___. |
apes, monkeys, tarsiers, lemurs and lorises.
|
|
A change in the genetic structure of a
population from one generation to the next. |
Evolution
|
|
An anatomical, physiological, or behavioral
response of organisms or populations to the environment |
Adaptation
|
|
Adaptations result from ___.
|
evolutionary change
|
|
Small genetic changes that occur within
a species |
Microevolution
|
|
Changes that occur only after many
generations, such as the appearance of a new species (speciation). |
Macroevolution
|
|
the appearance
of a new species |
Speciation
|
|
Strategies humans use to adapt to their
environment: |
technologies
subsistence • religion • marriage and patterns • housing types • clothing • family • values • gender roles |
|
General cultural orientation or perspective
of the external environment shared by members of a society and in particular ways that distinguish that culture from all others. |
Worldview
|
|
Over time, culture and biology interacted
in such a way that humans are said to be the result of ___ |
biocultural evolution
|
|
The human predisposition to assimilate
culture and function within it is profoundly influenced by ____ |
biological factors
|
|
Anything organisms do that involves
action in response to internal or external stimuli. |
Behavior
|
|
The response of an individual, group, or
species to its environment |
Behavior
|
|
Responses may or may not be deliberate,
and aren’t necessarily the result of conscious decision making. |
Behavior
|
|
The capacity or inclination to do
something. |
Predisposition
|
|
An organism’s capacity for behavioral or
anatomical modification is related to the presence of _____. |
preexisting traits
|
|
The mutual, interactive evolution of
human biology and culture. |
Biocultural Evolution
|
|
The concept that biology makes culture
possible and that developing culture further influences the direction of biological evolution |
Biocultural Evolution
|
|
Anthropology subields
|
Cultural Anthropology
• Archaeology • Linguistic anthropology • Physical (or Biological) Anthropology |
|
A powerful means of explaining variation
in human adaptations |
Anthropology
|
|
Study of the global patterns of belief and
behavior found in modern and historical cultures |
Cultural Anthropology
|
|
Detailed descriptive studies of human
societies. |
Ethnographies
|
|
Form the basis for comparative studies of
numerous cultures |
Ethnographies
|
|
Detailed descriptive studies of human
societies. |
Ethnographies
|
|
Ethnographic techniques are applied to
the study of diverse subcultures and their interactions with one another in contemporary areas |
urban anthropology
|
|
The practical application of
anthropological and archaeological theories and techniques |
Applied Anthropology
|
|
An applied subfield of cultural
anthropology that explores the relationship between various cultural attributes and health and disease. |
Medical Anthropology
|
|
Study of earlier cultures and lifeways
through scientific recovery, analysis, and interpretation of material remains of past societies and artifacts |
Archaeology
|
|
an applied approach to evaluating,
excavating, and conserving cultural properties threatened by development. |
Cultural Resource Management
|
|
Study of human speech and language.
|
Linguistic Anthropology
|
|
The use of language is a unique human
characteristic |
Linguists trace historical ties between languages
and groups of languages by examining similarities between contemporary languages • Insights into the process of language acquisition in infants have implications for the development of language skills in human evolution |
|
Study of human biology within the
framework of evolution. |
Physical Anthropology
|
|
Physical Anthropology Subfields:
|
Paleoanthropology, Anthropometry, Osteology, Paleopathology, Forensic Anthropology, Paleoanthropology
|
|
the study of
human evolution, as evidenced in the fossil record |
Paleoanthropology
|
|
Measurement of human body
• Identifying human variation due to possible adaptive significance • Identify genetic and other evolutionary factors that produced variation |
Anthropometry
|
|
The study of the human skeleton
|
Osteology
|
|
the study of skeletal
remains from archaeological sites |
Bioarchaeology
|
|
The study of disease and trauma in
archaeologically-derived skeletons |
Paleopathology
|
|
Investigates the prevalence of trauma,
certain infectious diseases, nutritional deficiencies, and conditions that may leave evidence in bone |
Paleopathology
|
|
Application of anthropological techniques
to legal issues |
Forensic Anthropology
|
|
The interdisciplinary approach to the
study of earlier hominids, their chronology, physical structure, archaeological remains, habitats, etc. |
Paleoanthropology
|
|
____examine how groups
respond physiologically to environmentally induced stress. |
Population studies
|
|
Population studies, Body Measurements, Genetics, DNA
|
Studies of Human Variation
|
|
Double-stranded molecule that contains
the genetic code, a set of instructions for producing bodily structures and functions. |
DNA
|
|
main component of
chromosomes. |
DNA
|
|
The study of the living nonhuman
primates |
Primatology
|
|
_____ and _____are frequently used to
identify genes in humans and non human primates |
Cloning and
sequencing methods |
|
A set of relationships in which all
components fall along a single integrated spectrum. |
Continuum
|
|
All life reflects a single ___ ___.
|
biological
continuum |
|
a process of explaining natural
phenomena by means of observation, developing explanations, or hypotheses |
Science
|
|
• Science is a process of explaining natural
phenomena by means of observation, developing explanations, or hypotheses • Empirical approach to gaining information • Data (information) is collected that can be studied and analyzed quantitatively |
Scientific Method
|
|
A broad statement of scientific
relationships or underlying principles that has been substantially verified through the testing of hypotheses |
Theory
|
|
“tested explanations of facts”
|
Theory
|
|
A provisional explanation of a
phenomenon. |
Hypotheses
|
|
_____ require verification or
falsification through testing. |
Hypotheses
|
|
An approach to research whereby a
question is asked, a hypothesis (or provisional explanation) is stated, and that hypothesis is tested by collecting and analyzing data. |
The Scientific Method
|
|
• State the research problem.
• Develop a hypothesis. • Test the hypothesis through data collection and analysis. • If the hypothesis is verified, it becomes a theory. |
The Scientific Method
|
|
Facts from which conclusions can be
drawn; scientific information. |
Data
|
|
Pertaining to measurements of quantity
and including such properties as size, number, and capacity. |
Quantitative
|
|
When data are quantified, they’re _____________________.
|
expressed numerically and can be tested
statistically |
|
The precise repetition of an experiment or
expansion of observed data to provide verification |
Scientific Testing
|
|
The procedure by which hypotheses and
theories are verified, modified, or discarded. |
Scientific Testing
|
|
A broad perspective that helps us understand
the diversity of the human experience within the context of biological and behavioral continuity with other species |
Anthropological Perspective
|
|
By learning about cultures other than our own,
we can avoid an ethnocentric view of other cultures. |
Anthropological Perspective
|
|
By recognizing that we have similarities with
other animals, we may recognize that they have a place in nature just as we do. |
Anthropological Perspective
|
|
Viewing other cultures from the inherently
biased perspective of one’s own culture. |
Ethnocentric
|
|
_____ often results in other
cultures being seen as inferior to one’s own. |
Ethnocentrism
|
|
viewing entities
as they relate to something else |
Relativistic
|
|
______ is the view that cultures
have merits within their own historical and environmental contexts and that they shouldn’t be judged through comparison with one’s own culture. |
Cultural relativism
|
|
Why the Anthropological
Perspective Matters |
Anthropology offers a wider appreciation of the
human experience, in order to understand humans beings and how our species came to be. |
|
Why the Anthropological
Perspective Matters |
How humans differ from and are similar to other
animals, including nonhuman primates • Understand the limits and potentials of humankind • Allows us to understand other people’s concerns and view our own culture from a broader perspective |
|
_____ are members of the
evolutionary lineage that includes ourselves, modern Homo sapiens |
Hominins
|
|
____ is learned.
|
Culture
|
|
Anthropologists who conduct
excavations in order to recover artifacts are _____ |
archaeologists
|
|
Physical anthropologists developed
techniques for measuring the human body. These type of measurements are called_____ |
anthropometrics
|
|
____ is the most fundamental of all
biological processes, but one of the most misunderstood |
Evolution
|
|
____ evolved from a species that
lived some 6-8 million years ago (mya), not monkeys or chimpanzees |
Humans
|
|
Evolution takes time; hence, the
appearance of a new species is rarely witnessed _____ occur |
microevolutionary changes
|
|
_____ Is a Theory
|
Evolution
|
|
• The theory has been tested and subjected
to verification through accumulated evidence (and has not been disproved) • The theory of evolution has been supported by a mounting body of genetic evidence. • The theory has stood the test of time. • The theory continues to grow. |
Evolution Is a Theory
|
|
• Evolutionary principles were developed in
western Europe, made possible by scientific thinking dating to the 16c. • Western science, however, borrowed ideas from Arab, Indian, and Chinese cultures where notions of biological evolution had already developed. • It was the theory that was new. |
A Brief History of
Evolutionary Thought |
|
The most critical mechanism of
evolutionary change, first explained by Charles Darwin |
Natural Selection
|
|
Natural Selection
• The most critical mechanism of evolutionary change, first explained by Charles Darwin • Same conclusions were independently reached by _________ |
Alfred Russel Wallace
|
|
A predominant feature of European
worldview was _______ |
that all forms of
nature never changed |
|
genetic change or changes in the
frequencies of certain traits in populations due to differential reproductive success between individuals |
Natural selection in the theory of evolution
|
|
The notion that species, once created,
can never change |
Fixity of Species
|
|
an idea diametrically opposed to theories
of biological evolution. |
Fixity of Species
|
|
To challenge the idea was to challenge
the perfection of God’s design. |
Fixity of Species
|
|
______ came with the discovery of the New
World, introducing new ideas and challenging fundamental views about the planet. |
The Scientific Revolution
|
|
Exposure to new plants and animals
increased awareness of biological diversity. |
The Scientific Revolution
|
|
• Aristotle taught that the sun and planets
existed in a series of concentric spheres that revolved around the sun. • Copernicus challenged the idea that the earth was the center of the universe. • Galileo’s work supported the idea that the universe was a place of motion. |
Challenges to traditional
beliefs |
|
____ taught that the sun and planets
existed in a series of concentric spheres that revolved around the sun. |
Aristotle
|
|
_____ challenged the idea that the
earth was the center of the universe |
Copernicus
|
|
____ work supported the idea that
the universe was a place of motion. |
Galileo
|
|
This seventeenth-century
map shows the earth at the center of the solar system. • Around it are seven concentric circles depicting the orbits of the moon, sun, and the five planets that were known at the time. |
Aristotle’s View
|
|
John Ray, Carolus Linnaeus, Erasmus Darwin, Jean-Baptiste Lamarck,
|
Precursors to the Theory of
Evolution |
|
recognized that groups of plants and
animals could be differentiated from other groups by their ability to mate with one another and produce offspring. • He placed such groups of reproductively isolated organisms into a single category, which he called the species. |
John Ray
|
|
developed the concept of species
|
John Ray
|
|
developed a method of classifying plants and
animals. |
Carolus Linnaeus
|
|
In Systema Naturae, first published in 1735, he
standardized Ray’s use of genus and species terminology and established the system of binomial nomenclature. • He added two more categories: class and order. |
Carolus Linnaeus
|
|
Linnaeus’ four-level system became the basis
for _____ |
taxonomy
|
|
In a poem, expressed the view that life
had originated in the seas and all species descended from a common ancestor. |
Erasmus Darwin, Charles Darwin’s
grandfather |
|
developed a
theory to explain the evolutionary process, known as the inheritance of acquired characteristics. |
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
|
|
the leaves from the lower branches of a
tree, the animal tries to reach leaves on upper branches. • The neck becomes slightly longer. • The longer neck is passed on to offspring. |
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck developed a
theory to explain the evolutionary process, known as the inheritance of acquired characteristics. |
|
An opponent to Lamarck,
_____ explained the fossil record as the result of a succession of catastrophes followed by new creation events. |
Cuvier
|
|
The view that the earth’s
geological landscape is the result of violent cataclysmic events. |
Catastrophism
|
|
author of an essay
that inspired both Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace in their separate discoveries of natural selection. |
Thomas Malthus
|
|
Was arguing for limits of human
population growth, not concerned with how species change. • The limits for populations to increase is controlled by availability of resources. • The latter was extended to all organisms by Darwin and Wallace. |
Thomas Malthus
|
|
• A lawyer, geologist, and,
for Charles Darwin’s friend and mentor. • Before meeting Darwin in 1836, Lyell had earned acceptance in Europe’s most prestigious scientific circles, thanks to his praised Principles of Geology, published during the years 1830–1833. |
Charlies Lyell
|
|
The theory that the earth’s features are the
result of long-term natural processes (i.e. wind, water erosion, local flooding, frost, decomposition, volcanoes, earthquakes, and glacial movements) that continue to operate in the present as they did in the past. |
Uniformitarianism
|
|
Proposed by James Hutton, elaborated on by
Lyell, this theory opposed catastrophism and contributed strongly to the concept of immense geological time. |
Uniformitarianism
|
|
When her father died,
___ began collecting and selling marine fossils to support her family. • She discovered the first fossilized Pleiosaurus (oceandwelling reptile) and became known as one of the world’s leading “fossilists.” |
Mary Anning
|
|
Ideas were formed while
serving as a naturalist on the 5-year voyage of the HMS Beagle |
Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
|
|
Darwin saw the
importance of biological variation within a species. |
Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
|
|
Recognized that sexual
reproduction increased variation, but did not yet know why. |
Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
|
|
The idea that in each generation more
offspring are born than survive to adulthood, coupled with the notions of competition for resources and biological diversity led to the theory of evolution |
The Struggle for Existence
Darwin |
|
He wrote, “ It at once struck me that under
these circumstances favourable variations would tend to be preserved, and unfavourable ones to be destroyed.” |
Darwin
|
|
Beak Variation in Darwin’s
Galápagos Finches ------- finch • Main food: seeds • Beak: heavy |
Ground finch
|
|
Beak Variation in Darwin’s
Galápagos Finches ____ finch • Main food: leaves, buds, blossoms, fruits • Beak: thick, short |
Tree finch
|
|
Beak Variation in Darwin’s
Galápagos Finches ___ finch • Main food: insects • Beak: stout, straight |
woodpecker finch
|
|
Beak Variation in Darwin’s
Galápagos Finches ____finch • Main food: insects • Beak: slender |
warbler finch
|
|
• All domestic dogs share a common ancestor,
the wolf. The extreme variation exhibited by dog breeds today has been achieved in a relatively short time through _____ |
artificial selection
|
|
Suggested species
descended from other species and new species were influenced by environmental factors |
Alfred Russell Wallace
(1823-1913) |
|
Presented joint paper,
coauthored with Darwin, on evolution and natural selection to the Linnean Society of London |
Alfred Russell Wallace
(1823-1913) |
|
____________,
are “the key” to understanding evolution |
Processes of Natural Selection
|
|
1. All species are capable of producing offspring
at a faster rate than food supplies increase. |
Natural Selection, the basic
processes - 8 |
|
2. There is biological variation within all species.
|
Natural Selection, the basic
processes - 8 |
|
3. Since in each generation, more individuals are
produced than can survive, and because of limited resources, there is competition among individuals. IMPORTANT NOTE: competition does not imply “fighting” |
Natural Selection, the basic
processes - 8 |
|
4. Individuals possessing favorable
variations or traits (i.e. speed, resistance to disease, protective coloration) have an advantage over those who do not. In other words, have greater fitness because favorable traits increase the likelihood of survival and reproduction |
Natural Selection, the basic
processes - 8 |
|
5. The environmental context determines
whether or not a trait is beneficial. Hence, favorable traits become most advantageous are the results of a natural process. |
Natural Selection, the basic
processes - 8 |
|
6. Traits are inherited and passed on to the
next generation. Individuals who produce more offspring are said to have a greater reproductive success, or fitness. |
Natural Selection, the basic
processes - 8 |
|
7. Variations accumulate over long periods
of time, so later generations may be distinct from ancestral ones |
Natural Selection, the basic
processes - 8 |
|
8. As populations respond to pressures
over time, they may become distinct species, descended from a common ancestor. |
Natural Selection, the basic
processes - 8 |
|
Over long periods of geological time,
successful variations accumulate in a population |
Natural Selection, the basic
processes - 8 |
|
• Later generations may be distinct from
ancestral ones, or a new species can appear. |
Natural Selection, the basic
processes - 8 |
|
_______ (distance, natural
barriers such as oceans) contributes to the formation of new species as individuals begin to adapt to different environments. |
Geographical isolation Natural Selection, the basic
processes |
|
________
(differential ecological circumstances) cause distinct species to develop. See, for example, the 13 species of Galápagos finches presumably all descended from a common South American ancestor. |
Selective pressures
Natural Selection, the basic processes |
|
1. A trait must be inherited if natural selection is
to act on it. 2. Natural selection can’t occur without population variation in inherited characteristics. 3. Fitness is a relative measure that changes as the environment changes. 4. Natural selection can only act on traits that affect reproduction |
Evolutionary Change
Through Natural Selection |
|
A trait must be____if natural selection is
to act on it. |
inherited
|
|
Natural selection can’t occur without
population variation in ____ |
inherited
characteristics |
|
_____ is a relative measure that changes as
the environment changes |
Fitness
|
|
Natural selection can only act on traits that
affect _____ |
reproduction
|
|
Pertaining to natural selection, a measure
of relative reproductive success of individuals |
Fitness
|
|
____ can be measured by an
individual’s genetic contribution to the next generation compared to that of other individuals. |
Fitness
|
|
An animal that gives birth to more young
passes its genes on a faster rate than one that bears few offspring. • An important element, however, is also the number of young raised successfully to the point where they reproduce, or _________ |
differential net reproductive success
|
|
• With the discovery of the structure of DNA
came the understanding of the entire genetic makeup of an individual or species. • Human and chimpanzee genomes were sequenced in 2003 and 2005, respectively. |
Genome
|
|
When expressions of a phenomenon
continuously grade into one another so that there are no discrete categories, they exist on a continuum. • Color is one such phenomenon, and life-forms are another. • Most people hold to belief systems that do not emphasize this or offer scientific explanations. |
Biological Continuity
|
|
• Religion and science concern different aspects
of the human experience, and they are not inherently mutually exclusive categories. |
Religion vs. Science
|
|
Belief in God does not exclude the possibility of
biological evolution; acknowledgement of evolutionary processes doesn’t preclude the existence of God. |
Religion vs. Science
|
|
Evolutionary theories are not rejected by all
religions or by most forms of Christianity. |
Religion vs. Science
|
|
• Conservative Christians (“Creationists”) seeking
a revival of “traditional values” and banning any theory that does not support the biblical version of the creation of humankind. |
Christian Fundamentalists
|
|
• Adherents to a movement in American
Protestantism that began in the early twentieth century. • This group holds that the teachings of the Bible are infallible and are to be taken literally. |
Christian Fundamentalists
|
|
• Argue that creation science and intelligent
design (ID) is as much a scientific endeavor as is evolution, and suggest scientific evidence to support creationist views • ID is not science, however |
Creation Science, Intelligent
Design |
|
Creationists argue their view is absolute and
fallible, which is counter to science which seeks testable hypotheses |
Creation Science, Intelligent
Design |
|
One of the greatest controversies
regarding education in the United States and other parts of the world is the teaching of evolution. |
Why Evolution Matters
|
|
Example: HINI Flu viruses are the result of viruses
“evolving” or changing in form. • Medical researchers try to predict which of several strains will pose the most serious threat and try to develop a vaccine that targets that specific “evolving” strain. If future physicians and researchers don’t understand evolution, there is little hope they can forestall potential medical crises as the pace of change in pathogens exceeds that of the antibiotics designed to defeat them. |
Why Evolution Matters
|
|
Contemporary Health Challenges
• The inevitable outcome of our more aggressive methods to fight microbes (disease causing micro-organisms such as bacteria and viruses) will lead to modified micro-organisms that have evolved to resist therapies such as antibiotics. More use of antibiotics to treat bacterial infections weed out vulnerable microbes, but leave less vulnerable to reproduce. Less vulnerable cause more serious forms of disease than the organisms that were eliminated |
Why Evolution Matters
|
|
To understand the complexities of
evolution one must be well versed in ____ and ______ |
genetics and biology.
|
|
Genetic evidence supports evolution T or F
|
True
|
|
Darwin realized that variation among
_________________ was how selection occurred, ultimately causing change in species. |
individuals
|
|
Natural selection acts on existing
_________________ within a species. |
variation
|
|
The study of gene structure and action,
and the patterns of inheritance of traits from parent to offspring |
Genetics
|
|
_______are the foundation
for evolutionary change. |
Genetic mechanisms
|
|
____are the basic units of life in all living
organisms. |
Cells
|
|
In some forms, such as ____, a single cell
constitutes the entire organism. |
bacteria
|
|
An adult human is made up of perhaps as many
as ______, all functioning in complex ways that promote the survival of the individual |
1,000 billion cells
|
|
The study of gene structure and action,
and the patterns of inheritance of traits from parent to offspring |
Genetics
|
|
_______are the foundation
for evolutionary change. |
Genetic mechanisms
|
|
____are the basic units of life in all living
organisms. |
Cells
|
|
In some forms, such as ____, a single cell
constitutes the entire organism. |
bacteria
|
|
An adult human is made up of perhaps as many
as ______, all functioning in complex ways that promote the survival of the individual |
1,000 billion cells
|
|
Life on earth can be traced back 3.7
billion years to single celled organisms, such as____ |
bacteria and blue-green algae
|
|
structurally complex
cells, appeared 1.2 billion years ago. |
Eukaryotic cells
|
|
A three-dimensional structure
composed of carbohydrates, lipids (fats), nucleic acids, and proteins |
Eukaryotic cells
|
|
Eukaryotic cells are A three-dimensional structure
composed of __, ___,___,___ |
carbohydrates, lipids
(fats), nucleic acids, and proteins |
|
A discrete unit surrounded by a thin
membrane, called the nuclear membrane. |
Cell Nucleus
|
|
Contains two kinds of nucleic acids,
molecules that contain genetic information that controls the cell’s function. |
Cell Nucleus
|
|
Structures made up of two or more atoms.
|
Molecules
|
|
Molecules can combine with other
___ to form more complex structures |
molecules
|
|
• DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
• RNA (ribonucleic acid) |
Nucleic Acids
|
|
Surrounds the nucleus and contains many
other types of organelles involved in various activities, such as breaking down nutrients and converting them to other substances, storing and releasing energy, releasing waste, and manufacturing proteins in a process called protein synthesis. |
Cytoplasm
|
|
Process where organelles are involved in
various activities, such as breaking down nutrients and converting them to other substances, storing and releasing energy, releasing waste, and manufacturing proteins is called _____ ____ |
protein
synthesis. |
|
oval structures enclosed
within a folded membrane, containing their own distinct DNA, called mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) |
Mitochondria
|
|
roughly symmetrical and
partly composed of RNA; essential in protein synthesis. |
Ribosomes
|
|
celllular components of body tissues,
such as muscle, bone, skin, nerve, heart, and brain |
Somatic cells
|
|
sex cells involved in reproduction and not
important as structural components of the body • Egg cells produced in female ovaries • Sperm cells produced n male testes |
Gametes
|
|
union of sex cells to form the potential of
developing into a new individual; in this way gametes transmit genetic information from parent to offspring. |
Zygote
|
|
Cellular function and an organism’s
inheritance depends on the ___ __________ |
structure and
function of DNA. |
|
DNA is composed of two chains of
_____, comprising a double strand or ______ |
nucleotides
double helix |
|
A nucleotide consists of
|
a sugar, a
phosphate, and one of four nitrogenous bases. |
|
• Nucleotides form long chains.
• The two chains are held together by bonds formed on their bases with their complement on the other chain. |
DNA Structure
|
|
Adenine (A) is the complement of
|
Thymine(T)
|
|
Guanine(G) is the complement of
|
Cytosine(C)
|
|
In genetics, referring to the fact that DNA
bases form base pairs in a precise manner. • For example, adenine can bond only to thymine. • These two bases are said to be complementary because one requires the other to form a complete DNA base. |
Complementary
|
|
James Watson
and Francis Crick in 1953 with their model of the structure of the ________ |
DNA molecule
|
|
• Cells multiply by dividing, making exact
copies of themselves and enabling organisms to grow and injured tissues to heal. |
DNA Replication
|
|
The DNA molecule is able to make copies
of itself. |
DNA Replication
|
|
• Specialized proteins that initiate and
direct chemical reactions in the body. |
Enzymes
|
|
______ begins when enzymes break
the bonds between bases throughout the DNA molecule, separating two previously joined strands of nucleotides and leaving their bases exposed. |
Replication
|
|
1. Enzymes break the bonds between the
DNA molecule. 2. Two nucleotide chains serve as templates for the formation of a new strand of nucleotides. 3. Unattached nucleotides pair with the appropriate complementary nucleotide |
The DNA Replication Process
|
|
Complex, three dimensional molecules that
function through their ability to bind to other molecules |
Proteins
|
|
• The protein____, found in red blood
cells, is able to bind to oxygen, which carries it throughout the body |
hemoglobin
|
|
_____ are
composed of four chains of amino acids (two “alpha” chains and two “beta” chains). • The red structures are the portions that bind to oxygen. |
Hemoglobin
molecules |
|
Substances (usually proteins) that are
produced by specialized cells and travel to other parts of the body, where they influence chemical reactions and regulate various cellular functions. |
Hormones
|
|
Small molecules that are the components
of proteins. |
Amino Acids
|
|
___ are the building blocks of
protein. |
Amino acids
|
|
Proteins differ according to ____and _____
|
number of
amino acids and the sequence in which they are arranged |
|
Ribosomes help convert the genetic
message from the DNA into proteins. • Messenger RNA (mRNA) carries the genetic message from the cell nucleus to the ribosome. • Transfer RNA (tRNA),found in the cytoplasm, binds to one specific amino acid. |
Protein Synthesis
|
|
_____ help convert the genetic
message from the DNA into proteins. |
Ribosomes
|
|
____carries the
genetic message from the cell nucleus to the ribosome. |
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
|
|
_____,found in the
cytoplasm, binds to one specific amino acid. |
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
|
|
RNA differs from DNA in three important ways:
|
1. It’s usually single-stranded. (This is true of the
forms we discuss, but it’s not true for all.) 2. It contains a different type of sugar. 3. It contains the base uracil as a substitute for the DNA base thymine. (Uracil is attracted to adenine, just as thymine is.) |
|
usually single-stranded. (This is true of the
forms we discuss, but it’s not true for all.) |
RNA
|
|
contains a different type of sugar than DNA
|
RNA
|
|
contains the base uracil as a substitute for
the DNA base thymine. (Uracil is attracted to adenine, just as thymine is.) |
RNA
|
|
___ is attracted to
adenine, just as thymine is. |
Uracil
|
|
A form of RNA that’s assembled on a
sequence of DNA bases. |
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
|
|
It carries the DNA code to the ribosome
during protein synthesis. |
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
|
|
Triplets of messenger RNA bases that
code for specific amino acids during protein synthesis. |
Codons
|
|
The type of RNA that binds to amino
acids and transports them to the ribosome during protein synthesis. |
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
|
|
• The process of coding a genetic message
for proteins by formation of mRNA. • A portion of the DNA unwinds and serves as a template for the formation of a mRNA strand. |
Protein Synthesis: Transcription
|
|
The process of coding a genetic message
for proteins by formation of ____. |
mRNA
Protein Synthesis: Transcription |
|
A portion of the DNA unwinds and serves
as a template for the formation of a mRNA strand. |
Protein Synthesis: Transcription
|
|
• The two DNA strands have partly separated.
• Free messenger RNA (mRNA) nucleotides have been drawn to the template strand, and a strand of mRNA is being made. • Note that the mRNA strand will exactly complement the DNA template strand, except that uracil (U) replaces thymine (T). |
Transcription
|
|
In transcription the mRNA strand will exactly
complement the DNA template strand, except that____replaces ____ |
uracil (U)
thymine (T). |
|
• The mRNA travels through the nuclear
membrane to the ribosome. • tRNAs arrive at the ribosome carrying their specific amino acids. • The base triplets on the tRNA match up with the codons on the mRNA. • As each tRNA line up in the sequence of mRNA codons their amino acids link to form a protein. |
Protein Synthesis: Translation
|
|
The mRNA travels through the nuclear
membrane to the _____ |
Protein Synthesis: Translation
ribosome |
|
___arrive at the ribosome carrying their
specific amino acids. |
Protein Synthesis: Translation
tRNAs |
|
The base triplets on the tRNA match up with the
_______. |
Protein Synthesis: Translation
codons on the mRNA. |
|
As each tRNA line up in the sequence of
mRNA codons their_____link to form a protein. |
Protein Synthesis: Translation
amino acids |
|
A ____ is the entire sequence of DNA bases
responsible for the synthesis of a protein. |
gene
|
|
A _____ occurs when the sequence of
bases in a gene is altered. |
mutation
|
|
Mutations may interfere with the ability to
produce vital protein and may lead to a new variety within the species, |
causing evolution
|
|
Recently, geneticists have learned that
only some parts of genes, called_____, are actually transcribed into mRNA (most of the nucleotide sequences in genes are not expressed during protein synthesis. |
exons
|
|
Some noncoding sequences, called
___, are initially transcribed into mRNA and then clipped out. |
introns
|
|
Genes that code for the production of
proteins that can bind to DNA and modify the action of genes. |
Regulatory Genes
|
|
Many are active only during certain
stages of development. |
Regulatory Genes
|
|
• An evolutionarily ancient family of
regulatory genes (highly conserved) that directs the development of the overall body plan and the segmentation of body tissues. |
Homeobox Genes (Hox genes)
|
|
____ determine the overall pattern of each type of
vertebra and of each individual vertebra. |
Hox genes
|
|
• Cells are involved with normal cellular
and metabolic processes. • The cell’s DNA becomes tightly coiled. • DNA is visible under a microscope as chromosomes. |
During cell division
|
|
During cell division:
____ are involved with normal cellular and metabolic processes |
Cells
|
|
During cell division The cell’s ___ becomes tightly coiled.
|
DNA
|
|
• During cell division DNA is visible under a microscope as
___ |
chromosomes
|
|
A chromosome is composed of a____ and ______
|
DNA molecule
and associated proteins. |
|
During normal cell functions, chromosomes
exist as _____ |
single-stranded structures
|
|
During cell division, chromosomes consist of
two strands of ___ joined at the____. |
DNA
centromere |
|
Since the DNA molecules have replicated, one
strand of a chromosome is an ____ copy of the other |
exact
|
|
Each species is characterized by a
specific number of ______ |
chromosomes
|
|
Humans have___ chromosomes.
|
46
|
|
Chromosome pairs are called
homologus if |
• They carry genetic information that
influences the same traits. • They are not genetically identical. |
|
• Autosomes - govern all physical
characteristics except sex determination. |
Types of Chromosomes
|
|
Autosomes - govern all physical
characteristics except sex determination. • Sex chromosomes - X and Y chromosome. • Mammal females have two X chromosomes. • Mammal males have one X and one Y chromosome |
Types of Chromosomes
|
|
govern all physical
characteristics except sex determination. |
Autosomes
|
|
• Sex chromosomes - ___ and _____
• Mammal females have two ___ chromosomes. • Mammal males have ___ and _____ chromosome |
X and Y chromosome.
X one X and one Y chromosome. |
|
____ is cell division in somatic cells.
|
Mitosis
|
|
___ occurs during growth and
repair/replacement of tissues. |
Mitosis
|
|
The result of mitosis is
|
two identical
daughter cells that are genetically identical to the original cell. |
|
1. The 46 chromosomes line up in the
center of the cell. 2. The chromosomes are pulled apart at the centromere. 3. The strands separate and move to opposite ends of the dividing cell. 4. The cell membrane pinches in and two new cells exist. |
Steps in Mitosis
|
|
During mitosis the cell is involved in
_____ activities |
metabolic
|
|
During mitosis DNA replication
occurs, but ______ are not visible. |
chromosomes
|
|
During mitosis first The ____disappears, and
double-stranded chromosomes are visible. |
nuclear
membrane |
|
During mitosis second The ______
align themselves at the center of the cell. |
chromosomes
|
|
During mitosis third The chromosomes
split at the ______, and the strands separate and move to opposite ends of the dividing cell. |
centromere
|
|
During mitosis fourth The _____pinches in as the cell
continues to divide. • The chromosomes begin to uncoil (not shown here). |
cell membrane
|
|
After mitosis is
complete, there are _______ |
two identical
daughter cells. |
|
After mitosis is
complete the___ ___ is present, and ______ are no longer visible. |
nuclear membrane
chromosomes |
|
Cell division in specialized cells in ovaries
and testes. |
Meiosis
|
|
____ involves two divisions and results
in four daughter cells, each containing only half the original number of chromosomes. |
Meiosis
|
|
Meiosis involves two divisions and results
in four daughter cells, each containing only half the original number of chromosomes. • These cells can develop into ______ |
gametes.
|
|
Meiosis involves__ ___and results
in___daughter cells, each containing only___the original number of chromosomes. |
two divisions
four half |
|
• Sometimes called crossing over; the
exchange of genetic material between partner chromosomes during meiosis |
Recombination
|
|
Recombination is the
exchange of genetic material between partner chromosomes during _____. |
meiosis
|
|
• Meiosis and sexual reproduction are
highly important evolutionary innovations. • Meiosis increases genetic variation at a faster rate than mutation. • Offspring in sexually reproducing species represent the combination of genetic information from two parents. |
Evolutionary
Significance of Meiosis |
|
• Meiosis increases ______at a
faster rate than mutation. |
genetic variation
|
|
• In order for fetal development to occur
normally, the meiotic process needs to be exact • If chromosomes or chromosome strands do not separate during either of the two divisions, serious problems can develop • Failure to separate is called nondisjunction |
Problems with Meiosis
|
|
If chromosomes or chromosome strands
do not separate during either of the two divisions, serious problems can develop Failure to separate is called _______ |
nondisjunction
|
|
Allows scientists to make of copies of DNA
samples which can then be analyzed. |
Polymerase Chain Reaction
(PCR) |
|
• Examine nucleotide sequences in Neandertal
fossils and Egyptian mummies • Identify an individual DNA sequences. • Identify remains of victims of 911. • Exonerate people wrongly convicted of crimes. |
Scientists use PCR to:
|
|
• A process in which genes from the cell of
one species are transferred to somatic cells or gametes of another species. |
Recombinant DNA
Technology |
|
Recombinant DNA
Technology ____ manipulation |
Genetic
|
|
Organisms that are genetically identical to
another organism. |
Clones
|
|
The term may also be used in referring to
genetically identical DNA segments, molecules, and cells. |
Clones
|
|
Effort begun in 1990 to sequence the
entire human genome, which consists of some 3 billion bases comprising approximately 25,000 to 30,000 genes. • The goal was achieved in 2003. • Scientists are still several years away from identifying the functions of many of the proteins produced by these genes. |
Human Genome Project
|
|
• The latest developments in assessing the
genetic sequences of chimpanzees and humans have confirmed similarities in genes that code for proteins and unanticipated differences in sequences that don’t code for proteins. • Tiny differences in protein-coding sequences may explain why humans are susceptible to diseases like cholera, malaria, and influenza while chimpanzees apparently are not. |
Why It Matters Human Genome Project
|
|
The entire sequence of DNA bases on
the chromosome that code for a particular polypeptide chain is a____. |
gene
|
|
Which of the following is NOT true about
RNA? a) It is single stranded. b) Some forms of RNA are involved with protein synthesis. c) It has a different type of sugar than DNA has. d) It contains the base thymine. |
Answer : d
• The following is NOT true about RNA. • It contains the base thymine. |
|
meiosis produces ____
|
gametes
|
|
A chromosomes is composed of
_________________and __________. |
a DNA
molecule and proteins. |
|
Somatic cell division is termed
_________________ . |
mitosis
|
|
A monk living in what
is now the Czech Republic |
Gregor Mendel
|
|
Living in an abbey he
crossed different strains of purebred plants and studied their progeny. |
Gregor Mendel
|
|
His work illustrates
the basic rules of inheritance. |
Gregor Mendel
|
|
Offspring of parents that differ from each
other with regard to certain traits or certain aspects of genetic makeup; heterozygotes. |
Hybrids
|
|
• Discrete units, or genes, occur in pairs
because chromosomes occur in pairs. • During gamete production, members of each gene pair separate so each gamete contains one member of a pair. • During fertilization, the full number of chromosomes is restored and members of a gene or allele pairs are reunited. |
Principle of Segregation
|
|
Discrete units, or genes, occur in pairs
because___occur in pairs. |
Principle of Segregation
chromosomes |
|
During gamete production, members of
each gene pair separate so each gamete contains ______ |
Principle of Segregation
one member of a pair. |
|
During ______, the full number of
chromosomes is restored and members of a gene or allele pairs are reunited. |
Principle of Segregation
fertilization |
|
• Dominant traits are governed by an allele
that can be expressed in the presence of another, different allele. • Dominant alleles prevent the expression of recessive alleles in heterozygotes. |
Dominance
|
|
_____ are governed by an allele
that can be expressed in the presence of another, different allele. |
Dominance
Dominant traits |
|
• Dominant alleles prevent the
expression of ______ alleles in _______. |
Dominance
recessive heterozygotes |
|
Recessive traits are not expressed in
heterozygotes. • For a recessive allele to be expressed, there must be two copies of the allele. |
Recessiveness
|
|
• Recessive traits are not expressed in
______. |
Recessiveness
heterozygotes |
|
For a _____ to be expressed,
there must be two copies of the allele. |
Recessiveness
recessive allele |
|
Alternate forms of a gene.
|
Alleles
|
|
_____ occur at the same locus on a pair of
chromosomes and influence the same trait. |
Alleles
|
|
The term is sometimes used synonymously with
gene. |
Alleles
|
|
Alleles occur at the same locus on a pair of
______ and influence the same trait. • However, because they are slightly different, their action may result in __________ |
chromosomes
different expressions of that trait. |
|
Having the same allele at the same locus
on both members of a pair of chromosomes. |
Homozygous
|
|
Having different alleles at the same locus
on members of a pair of chromosomes. |
Heterozygous
|
|
The position on a chromosome where a
given gene occurs. |
Locus
|
|
The genetic makeup of an individual.
|
Genotype
|
|
______ can refer to an organism’s
entire genetic makeup or to the _____ at a particular locus. |
Genotype
alleles |
|
Demonstrates how
alleles can be combined when the F1 plants are self-fertilized to produce an F2 generation. • Shows that 1/4 of the F2 plants should be homozygous dominant (TT), 1/2 heterozygous (Tt), and the remaining 1/4 to be homozygous recessive (tt). |
Punnett Square
|
|
The observable or detectable physical
characteristics of an organism; the detectable expressions of genotypes, frequently influenced by environment. |
Phenotypes
|
|
the
detectable expressions of genotypes, frequently influenced by environment. |
Phenotypes
|
|
• The distribution of one pair of alleles
into gametes does not influence the distribution of another pair. |
Principle of
Independent Assortment |
|
The genes controlling different traits
are inherited independently of one another. |
Principle of
Independent Assortment |
|
The chance distribution of chromosomes
to daughter cells during meiosis; |
Random Assortment
|
|
along
with recombination, a source of genetic variation (but not new alleles) from meiosis. |
Random Assortment
|
|
Characteristics that are influenced by
alleles at only one genetic locus. |
Mendelian Traits
|
|
Examples include many blood types, such
as ABO, Many genetic disorders, including sicklecell anemia and Tay-Sachs disease, |
Mendelian Traits
|
|
Over 19,000 human trains are known to be
inherited according to _____ principles |
Mendelian
|
|
The human ABO blood system is an example of
a simple ________. |
Mendelian inheritance
|
|
The A and B alleles are dominant to the___
allele. |
O
|
|
Neither the___ or ____ allele are dominant to one
another; they are codominant and both traits are expressed. |
A or B
|
|
Large molecules found on the surface of
cells. |
Antigens
|
|
• Foreign ______ provoke an immune
response |
antigens
|
|
Several different ____govern various antigens on red and white blood cells.
|
loci
|
|
The expression of two alleles in
heterozygotes. |
Codominance
|
|
In codominance, neither allele is dominant
or recessive; thus, both influence the _______. |
phenotype
|
|
Hair, eye and skin color are _______
|
polygenic traits
|
|
______, or continuous traits, are
governed by alleles at two or more loci, and each locus has some influence on the phenotype. |
Polygenic traits
|
|
Coloration is determined by ______
produced by specialized cells called melanocytes |
pigment
|
|
Melanin production is influenced by
interactions between several different____ that, until recently had not been identified |
loci
|
|
• Polygenic traits account for most of the readily
observable phenotypic variation seen in humans • Traditionally serve as a basis for racial classification • Actually, stature, shape of face, fingerprint patterns are polygenic traits • Most can be measured, i.e. height in feet and inches or meters and centimeters |
Polygenic traits and racial
classification |
|
Polygenic traits account for most of the readily
observable _____variation seen in humans |
phenotypic
|
|
Traditionally serve as a basis for racial
classification |
Polygenic traits
|
|
• Actually, stature, shape of face, fingerprint
patterns are ______ |
polygenic traits
|
|
Most can be measured, i.e. height in feet and
inches or meters and centimeters |
Polygenic traits
|
|
• Polygenic traits account for most of the readily
observable phenotypic variation seen in humans • Traditionally serve as a basis for racial classification • Actually, stature, shape of face, fingerprint patterns are polygenic traits • Most can be measured, i.e. height in feet and inches or meters and centimeters |
Polygenic traits and racial
classification |
|
Polygenic traits account for most of the readily
observable _____variation seen in humans |
phenotypic
|
|
Traditionally serve as a basis for racial
classification |
Polygenic traits
|
|
• Actually, stature, shape of face, fingerprint
patterns are ______ |
polygenic traits
|
|
Most can be measured, i.e. height in feet and
inches or meters and centimeters |
Polygenic traits
|
|
The expression of the
trait is described in terms of ______. |
frequencies
|
|
Discontinuous Distribution of
Mendelian Traits |
Shows discontinuous
distribution of ABO blood type in a hypothetical population. • The expression of the trait is described in terms of frequencies. |
|
All cells contain mitochondria that convert
energy into a form that can be used by the cell. • Each mitochondrion contains copies of a ringshaped DNA molecule, or chromosome. • Animals of both sexes inherit their mtDNA, and all mitochondrial traits, from their mothers. • All the variation in mtDNA is caused by mutation, which makes it very useful for studying genetic change over time. |
Mitochondrial Inheritance
|
|
All cells contain ______ that convert
energy into a form that can be used by the cell. |
mitochondria
|
|
Each ________ contains copies of a ringshaped
DNA molecule, or chromosome. |
mitochondrion
|
|
Animals of both sexes inherit their ________, from their mothers.
|
mtDNA, and
all mitochondrial traits |
|
All the variation in mtDNA is caused by
______, which makes it very useful for studying genetic change over time. |
mutation
|
|
_____________ as it has been considered from the
middle of the twentieth century, is a two-stage process: 1. The production and redistribution of variation (inherited differences among organisms). 2. Natural selection acting on this variation, whereby inherited differences, or variation, among individuals differentially affect their ability to successfully reproduce |
The Modern Synthesis
Evolution |
|
Evolution, as it has been considered from the
middle of the twentieth century, is a two-stage process: |
1. The production and redistribution of variation
(inherited differences among organisms). 2. Natural selection acting on this variation, whereby inherited differences, or variation, among individuals differentially affect their ability to successfully reproduce. |
|
A Current Definition Of
Evolution • From a modern genetic perspective, we define evolution as a change in allele frequency from one generation to the next. • Allele frequencies are indicators of the genetic makeup of a population, the members of which share a common gene pool. • In a population, allele frequencies refer to the percentage of all the alleles at a locus accounted for by one specific allele. |
A Current Definition Of
Evolution |
|
From a modern genetic perspective, we define
evolution as a change in ______ from one generation to the next |
allele frequency
|
|
___________ are indicators of the genetic
makeup of a population, the members of which share a common gene pool. |
Allele frequencies
|
|
In a population, allele frequencies refer to the
percentage of all the ________accounted for by one specific_____. |
alleles at a locus
allele |
|
Small genetic changes that occur within a
species. |
Microevolution
|
|
A human example is the variation seen in
the different ABO blood types. |
Microevolution
|
|
Large-scale changes that occur in
populations after many generations, such as the appearance of a new species (speciation). |
Macroevolution
|
|
the appearance of a new species
|
speciation
|
|
______ is a molecular alteration in genetic
material: |
Mutation
|
|
is a molecular alteration in genetic
material: • For a mutation to have evolutionary significance it must occur in a gamete. • Mutation rates for any given trait are usually low • When combined with natural selection, evolutionary changes can occur and can occur more rapidly. |
Mutation
|
|
For a mutation to have evolutionary
significance it must occur in a ______. |
gamete
|
|
When combined with natural selection,
evolutionary changes can occur and can occur more rapidly. |
Mutation
|
|
Mutation rates for any given trait are usually
_____ |
low
|
|
• The exchange of genes between populations.
• If individuals move temporarily and mate in the new population (leaving a genetic contribution), they don’t necessarily stay there. • Example: The offspring of U.S. soldiers and Vietnamese women represent gene flow, even though the fathers returned to their native population. |
Gene Flow
|
|
• Genetic drift occurs solely because the
population is small: • Alleles with low frequencies may not be passed to offspring and eventually disappear from the population. |
Genetic Drift
|
|
Alleles with________may not be
passed to offspring and eventually disappear from the population. |
low frequencies
|
|
Recombination doesn’t change allele
frequencies, or cause evolution. • Recombination changes the composition of parts of chromosomes • Recombination affects how some genes act, and slight changes of gene function can become material for natural selection to act upon. |
Recombination
|
|
Recombination changes the composition
of parts of _______ |
chromosomes
|
|
_______ affects how some genes
act, and slight changes of gene function can become material for natural selection to act upon. |
Recombination
|
|
Natural selection provides directional change in
allele frequency relative to specific environmental factors. • If the environment changes, selection pressures also change. • If there are long-term environmental changes in a consistent direction, then allele frequencies should also shift gradually each generation. |
Natural Selection
|
|
Natural selection provides directional change in
________ relative to specific environmental factors. |
allele frequency
|
|
• If there are long-term environmental changes in
a consistent direction, then _________ should also shift gradually each generation. |
allele frequencies
|
|
• A severe inherited hemoglobin disorder in
which red blood cells collapse when deprived of oxygen. • It results from inheriting two copies of a mutant allele. • This mutation is caused by a single base substitution in the DNA. |
Sickle-cell Anemia
|
|
• Many human disorders are caused by
mutations in genes at one locus. The more we know about Mendelian disorders, the better prepared we are to make decisions due to a family history of genetic difficulties. |
Why It Matters
Mendelian disorders |
|
• Huntington disease affects about 1 out of every
100,000 people and is caused by a dominant mutation on chromosome 4. • A person with the allele has a 50% chance of passing it their offspring. • There is no cure and symptoms most often occur between ages 35 and 45. • By this time, most people who want children have had them and may have passed the mutant allele on to their offspring. |
Huntington Disease
|
|
Huntington disease affects about 1 out of every
100,000 people and is caused by a dominant mutation on _____. |
chromosome 4
|
|
Mendel used the term ______ for a
trait that prevented another trait from appearing. |
dominant
|
|
Genes exist in pairs in individuals;
during the production of gametes, the pairs are separated so that a gamete has only one of each kind. This is known as the ____________ |
principle of segregation
|
|
Traits that have a range of phenotypic
expressions and show a continuum of variation are termed ______ |
polygenic
|
|
When alleles are introduced into a
population from another population, this is known as _______ |
gene flow/migration
|
|
The most complete definition of
biological evolution is a . |
change in allele
frequency from one generation to the next |
|
• Specialized limbs and locomotion
• Lack of dietary specialization, reflected in dentition • Visual acuity and reduced sense of smell • Neocortex expansion |
Physical Characteristics of
Primates |
|
• Longer period of gestation and
dependency of offspring • Dependence on flexible, learned behavior • Social groups and permanent association of adult males • Diurnal activities |
Social Characteristics
|
|
• Changes in diet, reliance on vision,
grasping hands and feet came about with arboreal settings, forward-facing eyes (facilitate binocular vision), rise of angiosperms (flowering plants) |
Evolutionary Factors
|
|
• A tendency towards erect posture.
• Hands and feet possess grasping ability. • Features of the hands and feet: • 5 digits on hand and feet • Opposable thumb • Partially opposable great toe • Tactile pads enriched with sensory nerve fibers at the ends of digits |
Primate Limbs
|
|
A horse’s front foot,
_________ with a human hand, has undergone reduction from 5 digits to one. |
homologous
|
|
• Omnivorous
• Incisors for biting and cutting; premolars and molars for chewing and grinding • Dental formula • Old World anthropoids have two incisors, one canine, two premolars, and three molars on each side in both upper and lower jaws: 2.1.2.3 (32 teeth total) |
Primate Diet and Teeth
|
|
Old World anthropoids have two
incisors, one canine, two premolars, and three molars on each side in both upper and lower jaws: 2.1.2.3 |
32 teeth total
|
|
• Color vision is a characteristic of diurnal
primates. • Nocturnal primates lack color vision. • Depth perception is made possible by eyes positioned forward on the front of the face. • Primates have a decreased reliance on the sense of smell. |
Primate Senses
|
|
• Color vision is a characteristic of ____
|
diurnal
primates |
|
Nocturnal primates lack_____vision.
|
color
|
|
Primates have a decreased reliance on
the________ |
sense of smell
|
|
Primates have a decreased reliance on
the________ |
sense of smell
|
|
• Quadrupedal, walk on all fours
• Vertical clinging and leaping • Brachiation • Knuckle walking |
Locomotion
|
|
• Quadrupedal, walk on all fours
• Vertical clinging and leaping • Brachiation • Knuckle walking |
Locomotion
|
|
The condition whereby visual images are
superimposed on one another. |
Stereoscopic Vision
|
|
The condition whereby visual images are
superimposed on one another. |
Stereoscopic Vision
|
|
This provides for depth perception, or the
perception of the external environment in three dimensions. |
Stereoscopic Vision
|
|
This provides for depth perception, or the
perception of the external environment in three dimensions. |
Stereoscopic Vision
|
|
Vision characterized by overlapping visual
fields provided for by forward-facing eyes. |
Binocular Vision
|
|
Vision characterized by overlapping visual
fields provided for by forward-facing eyes. |
Binocular Vision
|
|
Binocular vision is essential to ___________.
|
depth perception
|
|
Two halves of the cerebrum that are
connected by a dense mass of fibers. |
Hemispheres
|
|
The____is the large rounded outer
portion of the brain. |
cerebrum
|
|
Most live in tropical or semitropical areas
of the new and old worlds. • Most are arboreal, living in forest or woodland habitats. • No nonhuman primate is adapted to a fully terrestrial environment; all spend some time in the trees. |
Primate Habitats
|
|
• Lemurs and Lorises
• Tarsiers • Anthropoids: Monkeys, Apes, and Humans • New World Monkeys • Old World Monkeys |
Survey of Living Primates
|
|
The most primitive of the primates.
|
Lemurs and Lorises
|
|
• Reliance on olfaction
• Laterally placed eyes • Shorter gestation and maturation • Dental specialization called the "dental comb” |
Lemurs and Lorises Characteristics
|
|
The moist, fleshy pad at the end of the
nose seen in most mammals. enhances an animal’s ability to smell. |
rhinarium
|
|
Formed by forwardprojecting
incisors and canines. |
Lemur Dental Comb
|
|
Found on the island of Madagascar and other
islands off the coast of Africa, Extinct elsewhere in the world. |
Lemurs
|
|
• Larger lemurs are diurnal and eat vegetable
foods: fruit, leaves, buds, and bark. • Smaller lemurs are nocturnal and insectivorous (insect -feeding). |
Lemurs Characteristics
|
|
Found in tropical forests and woodlands of
India, Sri Lanka, southeast Asia, and Africa. |
Lorises
|
|
• Use a climbing quadrupedalism.
• Some are insectivorous; others supplement their diet with fruit, leaves, gums, and slugs. • Females frequently form associations for foraging or in sharing the same sleeping nest. |
Lorises Characteristics
|
|
• Small nocturnal primates found on the
islands of southeast Asia. • Eat insects and small vertebrates which they catch by leaping from branches. • Basic social pattern appears to be a family unit consisting of a mated pair and their offspring. |
Tarsiers
|
|
• Larger brain and body size
• Reduced reliance on the sense of smell • Greater degree of color vision • Bony plate at the back of the eye socket • Different female reproductive anatomy • Longer gestation and maturation periods • Fused mandible |
Anthropoids Common traits:
(Monkeys, Apes and Humans) |
|
• Represent about 85% of all primate
species. • Divided into two groups separated by geography and several million years of evolutionary history: • New World monkeys • Old World monkeys |
Monkeys
|
|
• 70 species almost exclusively arboreal.
• Found in southern Mexico and Central and South America. • Two families: Callitrichidae and Cebid |
New World Monkeys
|
|
Two families: Callitrichidae and Cebid
|
New World Monkeys
|
|
• Habitats range from tropical forests to semiarid
desert to snow-covered areas in Japan and china. • Characteristics: • Most quadrupedal and arboreal • All belong to the Cercopithecidae family. • Divided into subfamilies, the cercopithecines and the colobines. |
Old World Monkeys
|
|
The subfamily of Old World monkeys that
includes baboons, macaques, and guenons. • Omnivorous, cheek pouches, majority found in Africa |
Cercopithecines
|
|
The subfamily of Old World monkeys that
includes the African colobus monkeys and Asian langurs. |
Colobines
|
|
Differences in physical characteristics
between males and females of the same species. For example, humans are slightly sexually dimorphic for body size, with males being taller, on average, than females of the same population. |
Sexual Dimorphism
|
|
• Found in the tropical areas of southeast Asia.
• Adaptations for brachiation may be related to feeding while hanging from branches. • Diet is largely fruit with leaves, flowers, and insects. • Basic social unit is a monogamous pair and their offspring. • Males and females delineate their territories with whoops and “songs”. |
Gibbons and Siamangs
|
|
• White-handed gibbon brachiating.
• Note the long curved fingers, long arms, and heavily muscled shoulders. |
Gibbons
|
|
• Found in heavily forested areas of Borneo
and Sumatra. • Almost completely arboreal. • males = 200 lbs, females = 100 lbs • Pronounced sexual dimorphism. • Solitary • Principally frugivorous (fruit-eating). |
Orangutans (Pogo pygmaeus)
|
|
• Larger body size
• Absence of a tail • Shortened trunk • More complex behavior • More complex brain • Increased period of infant development |
Hominoids (Apes and Humans)
• Characteristics distinguishing hominoids from monkeys: |
|
• Largest of the living primates.
• Confined to forested regions of central Africa. • Males can weigh up to 400 pounds, females 200 pounds. • Primarily terrestrial, using a posture called “knuckle –walking”. • Groups consist of one large silverback male, a few adult females, and their subadult offspring. • Confined to forested areas of western and eastern equatorial Africa |
Gorillas
|
|
• Found in equatorial Africa.
• Anatomically similar to gorillas particularly in limb proportions and upper-body shape. • Locomotion includes knuckle-walking on the ground and brachiation in the trees. • Eat a variety of plant and animal foods. • Large communities of as many as 50 individuals. |
Chimpanzees
|
|
• Only found in an area south of the Zaire River.
• Population is believed to only number a few thousand individuals. • Exploit the same foods as chimps, including occasional small mammals. • Male-female bonds constitute the societal core. • Sexuality includes frequent copulations throughout the female's estrous cycle. |
Bonobos (Pan paniscus)
|
|
• The only living species in the family
Hominidae. • Human teeth are typical primate teeth. • Dependence on vision for orientation to the world |
Humans (Homo sapiens)
|
|
• Flexible limbs and grasping hands
• Omnivorous diet • Cognitive abilities are the result of dramatic increases in brain size. • Bipedal |
Humans (Homo sapiens)
|
|
• Mental capacity; ability to learn, reason,
or comprehend and interpret information, facts, relationships, and meanings. • The capacity to solve problems, whether through the application of previously acquired knowledge or through insight. |
Humans (Homo sapiens)
Intelligence |
|
• Over half of all living ______ are
endangered, many face immediate extinction |
Primates
|
|
• Habitat destruction
• Hunting for food • Live capture for export or local trade |
Endangered Primates
extinction. • Three reasons: |
|
• In West Africa the most serious problem
is hunting to feed the growing human population. • Estimated that thousands of primates, are killed and sold for meat every year. • Primates are also killed for commercial products. |
Hunting of Primates
|
|
Most people don’t know much about
nonhuman primates, and of those who do, a majority probably don’t realize how seriously endangered they are. • Some don’t care because their lives wouldn’t substantially change if chimpanzees became extinct in the wild. |
Endangered Primates
Why It Matters |
|
• Living nonhuman primates represent a lineage
that goes back approximately 60 million years. • They can provide us with information about how evolutionary processes have produced the diversity we see in our own lineage today. • We can identify genetic causes for certain conditions (such as AIDS) that humans are susceptible to but chimpanzees are able to resist. |
Endangered Primates
Why It Matters |
|
A highly developed sense of smell ____a primate characteristic.
|
is
NOT |
|
Binocular vision in primates contributes
to ________ |
stereoscopic vision
|
|
The _________________ is the
largest living primate. |
gorilla
|
|
The establishment of biological
reserves_____ a reason that nonhuman primates are endangered. |
is NOT
|
|
Chimpanzees aren’t monkeys, and neither are gorillas or orangutans. They’re_____
|
apes,
|
|
means that primates have retained several ancestral mammalian traits that some other mammals have lost over time.
|
generalized
|
|
Having a diet consisting of many food types, such as plant mate-rials, meat, and insects.
|
omnivorous
|
|
Active during the day
|
diurnal
|
|
character-ized by overlapping visual fields provided by forward- facing eyes
|
binocular vision
|
|
In general, _____ are omnivorous.
|
primates
|
|
made possible through a variety of mechanisms, including: a. Eyes placed toward the front of the face ( not to the sides). This position provides for overlapping visual fields, or binocular vision ( Fig. 6- 2). b. Visual information from each eye transmitted to visual centers in both hemispheres of the brain. In nonprimate mammals, most optic nerve fibers cross to the opposite hemisphere
|
Depth perception
|
|
portions of the brain where information from dif-ferent sensory modalities is combined
|
neocortex
|
|
This is a general trend among placental mammals, but it’s especially true of primates In primates, this expansion is most evident in the visual and association areas of the neocortex
|
Expansion and increased complexity of the brain.
|
|
Different forms of sensation ( e. g., touch, pain, pressure, heat, cold, vision, taste, hearing, and smell).
|
sensory modalities
|
|
The more recently evolved portion of the brain that is involved in higher mental functions and composed of areas that integrate incoming informa-tion from different sensory organs.
|
neocortex
|
|
Forward- facing eyes are positioned above the snout in _______; but in wolves, the eyes are positioned more to the side of the face
|
baboons
|
|
refers to several interrelated vari-ables, including climate, diet, habitat ( woodland, grassland, forest, and so on), and predation.
|
environmental circumstances
|
|
group of characteristics shared by primates has been explained as the result of an adaptation to ______.
|
arboreal living
|
|
proposed an alternative to the traditional arboreal hypothesis, called the visual predation hypothesis. Cartmill pointed out that while some animals ( squirrels, for example) don’t have forward- facing eyes, visual pred-ators like cats and owls do, and this fact may suggest an additional factor that could have shaped primate evolution.
|
Cartmill ( 1972, 1992)
|
|
adapted to life in the trees
|
arboreal Tree- living
|
|
An organism’s entire way of life: where it lives, what it eats, how it gets food, how it avoids preda-tors, and so on.
|
adaptive niche
|
|
Like nearly all other mammals, almost all primates have four kinds of teeth: .
|
incisors and canines for biting and cutting, and premolars and molars for chewing and grinding
|
|
Numerical device that indicates the number of each type of tooth in each side of the upper and lower jaws.
|
dental formula
|
|
Old World anthropoids have __________________on each side of the midline in both the upper and lower jaws, for a total of 32 teeth.
|
two incisors, one canine, two premolars, and three molars
|
|
The dental formula for a generalized placental mammal is 3.1.4.3
|
three inci-sors, one canine, four premolars, and three molars
|
|
humans, apes, and all Old World monkeys share the same dental formula:______This formula differs from that of the New World monkeys in which there are three ___
|
2.1.2.3.
premolars |
|
The bumps on the chewing sur-face of premolars and molars
|
cusps
|
|
Using all four limbs to support the body during locomotion; the basic mammalian ( and primate) form of locomotion.
|
quadrupedal
|
|
Arm swinging, a form of locomotion used by some primates
|
brachiation
|
|
_______ involves hanging from a branch and moving by alternately swing-ing from one arm to the other.
|
Brachiation
|
|
World monkeys, such as spider monkeys and muriquis ( see p. 135), are called _______ since they practice a combination of leaping with some arm swinging
|
semibrachiators
|
|
which in effect serves as a grasping fifth hand
|
prehensile tail
no Old World monkeys have prehensile tails. |
|
all the apes, to varying degrees, have arms that are _____ than legs
|
longer
|
|
gorillas, bonobos, and chimpanzees practice a special form of quadru-pedalism called ______
|
knuckle walking
|
|
the suborder, primates are divided into two smaller categories:
|
Strepsirhini ( lemurs and lorises) and Haplorhini ( tarsiers, monkeys, apes, and humans).
|
|
Strepsirhini
|
lemurs and lorises
|
|
Haplorhini
|
tarsiers, monkeys, apes, and humans
|
|
When a complete draft sequence of the chimpanzee genome was completed in 2005 ( The Chimpanzee Sequencing and Analysis Consortium, 2005), it was a major milestone in _______
|
human comparative genomics
|
|
Comparisons of the genomes of different species are important because they reveal such _______ as the number of nucleotide substitutions and/ or deletions that have occurred since related species last shared a common ancestor.Geneticists estimate the rate at which genes change, and then they combine this information with the amount of difference they observe to estimate when related species last shared a common ancestor.
|
differences in DNA
|
|
The suborder Strepsirhini includes the lemurs and lorises,
|
the most primitive liv-ing primates
|
|
by ____we mean that lemurs and lorises are more similar anatomically to their earlier mammalian ancestors than are the other primates ( tarsiers, monkeys, apes, and humans).
|
primitive
|
|
________ also mark their territories with scent, something not seen in most other primates.
|
Lemurs and lorises
|
|
they retain certain ancestral characteristics, such as a greater reliance on olfaction. Their greater olfactory capabilities ( compared to other primates) are reflected in the presence of a moist, fleshy pad, or rhinarium, at the end of the nose and a rela-tively long snout ( Fig. 6- 11).
|
Lemurs and lorises
|
|
1. A larger average body size 2. Larger brain in absolute terms and relative to body weight 3. Reduced reliance on the sense of smell, as indicated by the absence of a rhi-narium and other structures 4. Increased reliance on vision, with forward- facing eyes placed more to the front of the face 5. Greater degree of color vision 6. Back of eye socket protected by a bony plate 7. Blood supply to the brain different from that of lemurs and lorises 8. Fusion of the two sides of the mandible at the midline to form one bone ( in lemurs and lorises, they’re two distinct bones joined by cartilage at the middle of the chin) 9. More generalized dentition, as seen in the absence of a dental comb 10. Differences in female internal reproductive anatomy 11. Longer gestation and maturation periods 12. Increased parental care 13. More mutual grooming
|
Anthropoids: Monkeys, Apes, and Humans these traits distinguish them as a group from lemurs and lorises
|
|
New World monkeys are almost exclusively _____, and some never come to the ground. Like the Old World monkeys, all except one species ( the owl monkey) are diurnal.
|
arboreal
|
|
_____and_________are the smallest of the New World monkeys, and they have several distinguishing features. They have claws instead of nails, and unlike other primates, they usually give birth to twins instead of one infant. They’re mostly insectivorous, although marmosets eat gums from trees, and tamarins eat fruits.
|
Marmosets and tamarins
|
|
The subfamily of Old World mon-keys that includes baboons, macaques, and guenons.
|
cercopithecidae
cercopithecines |
|
Common name for members of the subfamily of Old World monkeys that includes the African colobus monkeys and Asian langurs.
|
colobines
|
|
Except for humans_____are the most widely distributed of all living primates.
|
Old World monkeys
|
|
all Old World monkeys are placed in one taxonomic family,
|
Cercopithecidae.
|
|
all Old World monkeys are placed in one taxonomic family, Cercopithecidae. In turn, this family is divided into two subfamilies: ________
|
the cercopithecines and colobines.
|
|
The ______ are the more generalized of the two groups: They’re more omnivorous, and they have cheek pouches for storing food, much like hamsters.
|
cercopithecines
|
|
_____species have a narrower range of food preferences and mainly eat mature leaves, which is why they’re also called_______
|
Colobine
leaf- eating monkeys |
|
Mendel’s first principle of inheritance, known as the ______.
|
principle of segregation
|
|
Today we know that______explains Mendel’s principle of segregation.
|
meiosis
|
|
Genes ( alleles) occur in pairs because chromo-somes occur in pairs. During gamete for-mation, the members of each pair of alleles separate, so that each gamete contains one member of each pair.
|
principle of segregation
|
|
Describing a trait that isn’t expressed in heterozygotes, also refers to the allele that governs the trait.
|
recessive
|
|
For a recessive allele to be expressed, an indi-vidual must have______of it ( i. e., the individual must be homozygous).
|
two copies
|
|
Describing a trait governed by an allele that’s expressed in the pres-ence of another allele ( i. e., in heterozygotes).
|
dominant
|
|
______prevent the expression of recessive alleles in heterozygotes.
|
Dominant alleles
|
|
Dominant alleles prevent the expression of recessive alleles in heterozygotes.
|
complete dominance
|
|
It shows the different ways alleles can be combined
|
Punnett square.
|
|
It’s important to understand that the only way a recessive allele can be expressed is if it occurs with another ______, that is, if the individual is homozygous recessive at the particular locus in question.
|
recessive allele
|
|
Mendel also demonstrated that different characteristics aren’t necessarily inher-ited together by showing that plant height and seed color are independent of each other. That is, any tall pea plant had a 50- 50 chance of producing either yellow or green peas. Because of this fact, he developed the ___
|
principle of independent assortment.
|
|
According to the _________, the units ( genes) that code for different traits ( in this example, plant height and seed color) sort out independently of each other during gamete formation.
|
principle of independent assortment.
|
|
The vertebrates themselves are subdivided into five classes: .
|
cartilaginous fishes, bony fishes, amphibians, reptiles/ birds, and mammals
|
|
Similarities between organisms based on descent from a common ancestor.
|
homologies
|
|
Similarities between organ-isms based strictly on common function, with no assumed common evolutionary descent
|
analogies
|
|
The sepa-rate evolutionary development of similar characteristics in different groups of organisms.
|
homoplasy ( homo, meaning “ same,” and plasy, meaning “ growth”)
|
|
Evolutionary biologists typically use two major approaches, or “ schools,” when interpreting evolutionary relationships with the goal of producing classifications.
|
evolutionary systematics
cladistics |
|
An approach to classifica-tion that attempts to make rigorous evo-lutionary interpretations based solely on analysis of certain types of homologous characters ( those considered to be derived characters).
|
cladistics
|
|
Referring to characters inherited by a group of organisms from a remote ancestor and thus not diagnostic of groups ( lineages) that diverged after the character first appeared; also called primitive
|
ancestral
|
|
A group of organisms sharing a common ancestor. The group includes the common ancestor and all descendants.
|
clade
|
|
Referring to characters that are modified from the ancestral condition and thus diagnostic of particular evolutionary lineages.
|
derived ( modified)
|
|
A tradi-tional approach to classification ( and evolutionary interpretation) in which presumed ancestors and descendants are traced in time by analysis of homologous characters.
|
evolutionary systematics
|
|
simply means that a character seen in two organisms is inherited in both of them from a distant ancestor.
|
primitive or ancestral
|
|
When we try to identify a clade, the characters of interest are said to be ______
|
derived, or modified.
|
|
______focuses on traits that distinguish particular evolutionary lineages; such traits are far more informative than ances-tral traits.
|
Cladistics
|
|
Relating to specific character traits shared in common between two life- forms and considered the most useful for making evolutionary interpretations.
|
shared derived
|
|
A chart showing evolutionary relationships as determined by evolutionary systematics. It contains a time component and implies ancestor-descendant relationships
|
phylogenetic tree
|
|
A chart showing evolu-tionary relationships as determined by cladistic analysis. It’s based solely on interpretation of shared derived charac-ters. It contains no time component and does not imply ancestor- descendant relationships.
|
cladogram
|
|
A depiction of species as groups of individ-uals capable of fertile interbreeding but reproductively isolated from other such groups.
|
biological species concept
|
|
The process by which a new species evolves from an earlier spe-cies.
|
speciation
|
|
______ is the most basic process in macroevolution.
|
Speciation
|
|
Gene exchange between populations ( gene flow) will be limited if a geographical barrier, such as an ocean or mountain range, effectively separates these populations. This extremely important form of isolating mechanism is called_________
|
geographical isolation.
|
|
Species defined from fossil evidence, often covering a long time span
|
paleospecies
|
|
Between species; refers to variation beyond that seen within the same species to include additional aspects seen between two different species
|
interspecific
|
|
Within species; refers to variation seen within the same species
|
intraspecific
|
|
Differences in physical characteristics between males and females of the same species. For example, humans are slightly sexually dimorphic for body size, with males being taller, on average, than females of the same population.
|
sexual dimorphism
|
|
A______is therefore defined as a group of species composed of members more closely related to each other than they are to species from any other genus.
|
genus
|
|
An ______represents a general ecological lifestyle more basic than the narrower ecological niches characteristic of individual species.
|
adaptive zone
|
|
The study of how bones and other materials come to be buried in the earth and preserved as fossils.
|
taphonomy
|
|
geological time scale The organization of earth history into ___, ___, ____ commonly used by geolo-gists and paleoanthropologists.
|
eras, periods, and epochs
|
|
Vertebrate and Mammalian Evolution Periods, in turn, can be broken down into ___.
|
epochs
|
|
For the time span encompass-ing vertebrate evolution, there are three eras:
|
the Paleozoic, the Mesozoic, and the Cenozoic.
|
|
The earliest vertebrate fossils date to early in the _____at 500 mya
|
Paleozoic
|
|
During the ____ several varieties of fishes ( including the ancestors of modern sharks and bony fishes), amphibians, and reptiles appeared.
|
Paleozoic,
|
|
The evolutionary history of vertebrates and other organisms during the ___ and____ was profoundly influenced by geographical events.
|
Paleozoic and Mesozoic
|
|
During the late Paleozoic, the continents came together to form a single colossal landmass called ____
|
Pangea.
|
|
During the early Mesozoic, the southern continents ( South America, Africa, Antarctica, Australia, and India) began to split off from Pangea, forming a large southern continent called ______
|
Gondwanaland
|
|
Trilobites abundant; also brachiopods, jellyfish, worms, and other invertebrates.
|
Cambrian
|
|
First fishes; trilobites still abundant; graptolites and corals become plentiful; possible land plants.
|
Ordovician
|
|
Jawed fishes appear; first air- breathing animals; definite land plants
|
Silurian
|
|
Age of Fish; first amphibians and first forests appear.
|
Devonian
|
|
First reptiles; radiation of amphibians; modern insects diversify.
|
Carboniferous
|
|
( North America, Greenland, Europe, and Asia) were consolidated into a northern landmass called ______
|
Laurasia.
|
|
During the _____, Gondwanaland and Laurasia continued to drift apart and to break up into smaller segments. By the end of the ______ ( about 65 mya), the continents were beginning to assume their current positions
|
Mesozoic
Mesozoic |
|
During most of the ____, reptiles were the dominant land vertebrates, and they exhibited a broad expansion into a variety of ecological niches, which included aerial and marine habitats. The most famous of these highly successful _____ reptiles were the dinosaurs
|
Mesozoic
Mesozoic |
|
The Cenozoic is divided into two periods:
|
the Tertiary and Quaternary,
|
|
from about 1.8 mya up to and including the present.
|
Quaternary
|
|
about 63 million years in duration
|
Tertiary
|
|
Paleontologists often refer to the next, more precise level of subdivision within the Cenozoic as the _____
|
epochs
|
|
There are seven epochs within the Cenozoic:
|
the Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene, and Holocene, the last often referred to as the Recent epoch
|
|
During the Cenozoic, _____ became the most widespread and numerous mammals and today are repre-sented by upward of 20 orders, including the primates.
|
placentals
placental A type ( subclass) of mam-mal. |
|
Having different kinds of teeth; characteristic of mammals, whose teeth consist of incisors, canines, premo-lars, and molars.
|
heterodont
|
|
It was during this era that, along with birds, mammals replaced earlier reptiles as the dominant land- living vertebrates.
|
Cenozoic the Age of Mammals.
|
|
Except for birds, reptiles maintain a constant internal body temperature through exposure to the sun; these reptiles are said to be _____.
|
ectothermic
|
|
In mammals and birds, however, energy is generated internally through metabolic activity ( by processing food or by muscle action); for this rea-son, mammals and birds are said to be _______
|
endothermic.
|
|
three major subgroups of living mammals:.
|
the egg- laying mammals, or monotremes; the pouched mammals, or marsupials; and the placental mammals
|
|
_______, of which the platypus is one example ( Fig. 5- 16), are extremely primitive and are considered more distinct from marsupials or placentals than these two subgroups are from each other.
|
monotremes
|
|
the potential capacity of a group of organisms to multiply is practically unlimited, but its ability to increase its numbers is regulated largely by______________
|
the availability of resources ( food, water, shelter, and space).
|
|
The relatively rapid expansion and diversification of life- forms into new ecological niches.
|
adaptive radiation
|
|
Another aspect of evolution closely related to adaptive radiation involves the transition from generalized characteristics to specialized characteristics. These two terms refer to the ____ ____ of a particular trait.
|
adaptive potential
|
|
A trait that’s adapted for many functions is said to be _______, while one that’s limited to a narrow set of functions is said to be ______.
|
generalized
specialized |
|
It’s important to note that only a ___ ____can provide the flexible evolutionary basis for rapid diversification.
|
generalized ancestor
|
|
The conventional view of evolu-tion has emphasized that change accumulates gradually in evolving lineages, an idea called ______.
|
phyletic gradualism
|
|
The con-cept that evolutionary change proceeds through long periods of stasis punctu-ated by rapid periods of change.
|
punctuated equilibrium
|
|
In this model, there are no “ missing links” between species; the gaps are real, not artifacts of an imperfect fossil record.
|
punctuated equilibrium
|
|
In summary, the critical difference between phyletic gradualism and punctu-ated equilibrium relates to how the ____ ____events probably occurred in the past.
|
timing of speciation
|
|
____ ____predicts slow accumulation of adaptive differ-ences that finally culminate in a new species
|
Phyletic gradualism
|
|
____ _____ predicts that no changes occur for long periods of time until there is a sudden adaptive change, which results in a new species.
|
punctuated equilibrium
|
|
two major orga-nizing perspectives prove indispensable:
|
( 1) schemes of formal classification to orga-nize organic diversity and ( 2) the geological time scale to organize geological time.
|
|
evolutionary biologists have postulated two different modes of evolu-tionary change:
|
gradualism and punctu-ated equilibrium.
|