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134 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Sex
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Biologically founded
Presence of X and Y chromosomes Discrete category |
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Gender
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Socially constructed notion of masculine/feminine
Continuous category |
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Sex Change
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Skeleton still shows signs of original sex at birth...does not change
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Sexual Dimorphism
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Differences in form between individuals of different sex within the same species
-Difference in humans = 8% (females are 92% the size of males) -Males have more robust bones -Males have bigger muscle attachments -Overall, relatively similar |
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Why be Sexual Dimorphic?
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-Divergent roles (bearing children)
Sexual Selection -Competition for mates -Influenced by hormones (testosterone/estrogen released in puberty...prior it is difficult to determine sex) |
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How to Sex Remains
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1) Look at pelvis and skull
2) Visual assessment (non-metric) -Features of bone -Size differences most important 2) Metric Assessment 3) Where? 1st = pelvis 2nd = skull (lots of range of variations between populations) |
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Male Pelvis
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-Narrow sub-pubic angle (between pubic epiphyses)
-Narrow sciatic notch (posterior between sacrum and ilium) -Short pubis - acetabullum to the pubis is shorter than to the ischium -Small, narrow pelvic inlet (more curved sacrum and coxic and narrow between ischial spines) |
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Female Pelvis
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-Wide supbupic angle
-Wide sciatic notch -Long pubic -Large pelvic outlet |
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Sciatic Notch Scale
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1 = widest, most female
5 = narrowest, most male |
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Female Pubis Region
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-Ventral side is arced
-Supbubic dorsal side is more concave -Ridged medial aspect |
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Male Pubis Region
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-Ventral side is squared off or ridged
-Subpubic dorsal side lacks concavity -Medial aspect flat, broad |
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Sexing from Long Bones
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Examine the joints and joint surface (i.e. femoral head)
Larger = male |
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Male Skull
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-Large, robust
-Larger browridge -Blunt orbital margins -Sloping forehead -Large mastoids -Marked nuchal area -Square chin -Mandible = 90 degrees -Rougher, larger muscle attachments |
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Female Skull
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-Small, gracile
-Small browridges -Sharp orbital margins -Vertical forehead -Small mastoids -Gracile nuchal area -Pointed/rounded chin -Mandible angle obtuse |
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Osteoporosis
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-Women lose bone mass in most of body
-BUT post-menopause the frontal bones get more robust |
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Can we assess sex in children based on skeletal markers?
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Drivers of sexual features = hormones of puberty
No markers before this age in remains |
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Antemortem Skeletal Anomalies
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Any deviation from the norm - anything that can be used as a unique identifier
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Importance of Identifying Antemortem Conditions
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Can be mistake for:
-Perimortem trauma -Postmortem damage Individualizing info on decedent |
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Deviations from the Norm
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Pathological conditions
-Typical skeletal anomolies/variance (i.e. sexually dimorphic characteristics, not pathological - just different) -Markers of occupational stress - repetitive actions that leave markers on the skeleton (more exaggerated in archaeological samples) |
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Pathological Conditions
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1. Bones react to disease slowly
2. Some diseases affect bones less than others (i.e. TB is mostly soft tissue) 3. Skeletal lesions are generalized - often difficult to associate a specific lesion to a specific disease because many diseases have similar bone effects |
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Congenital Disease
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-Anomalies occurring in the soft tissue and or skeleton which commence during fetal development
-May present at birth or shortly after -Range from undetected in life to fatal EXAMPLES -Cleft palate (failure of fusion of palatine sutures, fixable) -Spinal Bifida (failure of the fusion of the neural arches in the sacrum...can vary in degree from non-issue to fatal if spinal cord protrudes during development and hinders it) |
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Infectious Disease
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-Results from pathogenic microbial agents: viruses, bacteria, fungi, parasites
-Often have unusual patterns EXAMPLES -Osteomyelitis (different bacterias cause deformity of top layer of bone --> bone build up, ususually just in the periosteom) -Leprosy (eats away bone of face, hands and feet) -TB (in and around the lungs, legions on rib cage and vertebrae) -Treponemal diseases, syphilis (five categories based on geography, not originally a venerial disease, effects on cranium's frontal bone/tibia) |
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Joint Disease
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Conditions involving damage to joints of the human body
-Osteoarthritis (use-based degeneration) -Rheumatoid arthritis (bacterial based joint charge) -Septic arthritis (product of a disease in a joint) |
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Abnormal Spinal Curvatures
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-Scoliosis: lateral curve of the spine
-Kyphosis: forward curve = "humpback", aging, thoracic vertebrae -Lordosis: inward curve of lower back |
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Trauma Induced Pathology
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Ossefication (bony development) surrounding area of trauma
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Dental Disease
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-Conditions affecting teeth/gums
-Tend to have good dental records in USA -Caries = cavities (breakdown of enamel in crown or root, infectious) -Periodontal Disease = gum area (can be in the bone, "abscess") |
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Metabolic Disease
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Abnormalities that occur as a result of deficiency/excess of dietary, chemical or hormonal components in the body
Ex: menapouse --> osteoporosis |
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Vitamin D
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-Manufactured in the body (other mammals can synthesize it)
-Regions in north/south of tropical areas are vulnerable to deficiency -Necessary for bone mineralization and calcification of cartilage (max effect on growing infants/kids) -Pigmentation of skin - darker skin more vulnerable -Need 10 minutes/day |
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Rickets
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Unusual bending of bone in children, bones ossify in unusual ways since not enough Vit D to harden
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Hydrocephalus
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-Excess of H2O on brain associated with Rickets
-Gross expansion of the skull |
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Scurvy
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Condition caused by lack of Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) resulting in deficient collagen synthesis
Collagen = pre-cursor to bone that becomes weaker Porous bone near the growth plate and in the eye orbitals (similar to anemia) |
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Iron Needs
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Men/post-menopause: 8 mg
Women: 18 mg Pregnant: 27 mg Spinach is NOT a good source of iron (too much calcium inhibits absorption) Iron enhancers: meat/fish/poultry, vit-C rich fruits, white wine, broccoli, brusselsprouts |
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Anemia
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Abnormalities of red blood cells that affect the ability of the circulatory system to exchange oxygen (not enough) --> from lack of iron absorption
Lines on teeth result "Linear Enamel Hypoplasia": can measure times of famine by examining distance between lines |
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Calcium
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Good sources: dairy products, seaweeds, nuts/seeds, beans, oranges, greens
Help absorb calcium: vitamin D Inhibit absorption: age, pregnancy, caffeine, alcohol |
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Osteoporosis
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Reduction of total bone mass (density decrease because of lack of calcium)
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Neo-Plastic Disease
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Cancer!
Proliferation (new growth) of cells generally resulting in a tumor and/pr cancer (malignant or benign) -Bone cancers = bone growth beyond normality |
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Button Osteoma
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small, benign tumor looks like a "bony zit"
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Biological Indentifiers
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Idiosyncratic anatomical variations (extra vertebrae, weird bone anomalies)
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Skeletal Anomalies
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Accessory bones (common in wrist/ankle, bone near occipital in those of Asian ancestry)
Non-fusion (lac of epiphyses that would attkach, common in scapula) Accessory foramen (holes developing for vasculature to go through) |
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Unique Markers
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other unusual skeletal anomalies that are distinct to the individual
-"Tori" = bony growths in the mandible -Any dental work -Broken bones -Surgical/artificial devices -Pathology |
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Orthopedic Vendors
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All orthopedic devices carry:
-Vendor logo -Casting # -Lot # -Serial # that can be tracked to patient SMDA (1990) - Safe Medical Device Act |
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Markers of Occupational Stress
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Many occupations and activities involving heavy labor or unusual activity leave imprints on the bones of the person engaged in them
-Modification of muscle attachment sites -Ostephytes -Discrete markers -Stress fractures |
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Modification of Muscle Attachment Sites
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Hypertrophy: increase in size of muscle attachments due to the frequent use of the muscles
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Ostephytes
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-Small spurs or ridges of bones that project from an area that is normally smooth, flat
-Occur in the vertebrae and around joint surfaces |
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Discrete Markers
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Facets, grooves, deformations
"Squatters Facets" = grooves on distal end of tibia |
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Stress Fractures
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-Result from repeated strenuous activities
-Ex: Pars fractures (football!) |
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Why ID the Dead?
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-Emotional peace for families
-Insurance, probate, social institutions -Prosecution of offenders |
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Positive Identification
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-Nuclear DNA with a known example
-Fingerprints -Biological identifiers (complete with profile) -Surgical device w/serial # |
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Presumptive Evidence of ID
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-Mitochondrial DNA match with maternal relative
-Racial/ancestral/population characteristics -Document with medical history -Wallet, tattoo, scar, mole |
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Closed Event
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Know individuals involved (ex. airplane crash)
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Open Event
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-Do NOT know the ID of all individuals involved
-Ex: hurricane or 9/11 |
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Goal of Identification
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-ID each individual from a single piece of fragmented remains - satisfies legal requirements
-Identify each fragment and return the remains to the family - satisfies family requirements -All reported missing individuals have been issued a death report 9/11: a lot of individuals never ID-ed since not US citizens |
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What is Trauma?
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Injury caused to a living tissue by an outside force
-Bludgeons, projectiles (gunshots), cutting and chopping instruments (person-person) -Cars, trucks, trains, planes -Extremes of heat and cold (more in soft tissue) |
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Why is trauma analysis important to the biological profile?
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How did the body came to be dead
Can also be used to ID the individual (broken bones - unrelated to cause of death) |
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Issues of Importance to Law Enforcement
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1. Identify peri-mortem trauma (can postulate if caused death)
2. Force that caused trauma 3. Number of wounds 4. Sequence of wounds 5. Physical placement of wounds in the body |
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Antemortem
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-Injury that occurs before death
-Shows signs of healing/immune response |
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Perimortem
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Injuries that occurred around time of death
Less evidence of immune response/healing |
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Postmortem
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Injury that occurs after death
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Blunt force trauma
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Injury resulting from a blow from a wide instrument with a flat/rounded surface (car, baseball bat, etc)
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Sharp Force Trauma
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Resulting from an implement with point or edge (knife, machete, ax…both blunt and sharp)
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Projectile Trauma
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-Generally result from gunshot injury
-Tend to have characteristics of both blunt and sharp trauma…categorized as “blunt” since the bullet itself has no sharp point/edge |
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Miscellaneous Trauma
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Forces that do not fit in any other category
-Static Pressure: strangulation/crushing -Generalized dynamic pressure: explosion -Chemicals or heat |
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Simple/Transverse Fracture
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Clean break through bone
Common in breaks resulting from falls |
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Open/Compound Fracture
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Sticks out of the skin
Higher potential for infection |
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Compression Fracture
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Stress on vertebrae squeezes it
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Greenstick Fracture
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-Incomplete (not all the way through bone)
-Often seen in kids since their bones are flexible/growing |
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Spiral Fracture
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-Oblique fracture across the shaft
-Victims of abuse -Greenstick or full -Never heal perfectly |
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Comminuted Fracture
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-Several complex fractures
-Results in 3+ fragments -More common in violent deaths |
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Butterfly Fracture
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-Triangle with point towards force
-Hit by a car, thinner side = pressure |
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Segmented
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-Three separate bone fragments, two clean parallel breaks
-High degree of force in small area |
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Forces
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1) Tension - pull apart
2) Compression 3) Torsional/spiral - twisting 4) Bending 5) Shearing - pressure at top, separating bone |
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Stages of Fracture Repair
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1) Cellular
-Closure of Fracture -Formation of callus (~21 days) = rough protection of early cartilage and bone cells 2) Metabolic - replace immature w/mature bone 3) Mechanical - realignment and remodeling of bone Over-response = lasting evidence of break |
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Boxer's Fracture
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5th metacarpal on the distal end
No support like 2nd/3rd metacarpals |
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Colles' Fracture
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distal radius fracture, common in older women or bracing your fall with hands out
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Pars Fracture
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Vertebral fracture
-Can also be a congenital defect (failure to fuse) -Result of football -Disk implications |
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LeFort Fractures
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Blunt force applied to the face
Fractures tend to end at suture lines 1) Sep maxilla from face - low blow to lower face (fracture line or true separation) 2) Separation of midface from cranium - direct blow to midface 3) Entire face is separated from braincase - central blow to upper face |
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Ring Fracture
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Ring around foramen magnum
-From skull being forced down onto vertebral column -Head first OR feet first fall -From skull being pulled away from vertebral column |
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Improper healing of fractures
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-Bone deformity
-Pseudoarthorosis: non-union of fracture that leads to formation of "false join" |
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Fracture Lines
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Discontinuity in bone around the point of impact
-Dissipate force: spread out strain on bone -Two forms: radiating and co-centric -Help determine: 1. Original impact site 2. Number of impacts 3. Sequence of impacts |
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Fracture Connections
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Co-centric cracks often connect radiating cracks
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Sequencing Fractures
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Sequence of multiple impacts deduced when cracks from subsequent impact terminate at previous cracks
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BFT Weapon
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Hard to ID...but sometimes from:
-Size: long vs. short -Shape: longitudinal vs. cross-sectional shape), patterned injuries -Weight: heavier weapon = more force = more damage |
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Patterned Injury
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Shape of weapon leaves a unique signature or patter on the injury (uncommon, tough to ID)
-Bill Maples = comparable to wooden blocks |
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Sharp Force Injuries
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Puncture
Incision Cleft/notch |
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Puncture
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1. Direction of force is vertical
2. Instrument is cone shaped, pointed 3. Typical of stabbing |
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Incisions
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1) Force applied along surface of bone with implement having long, sharp edge
2) Defects are longer than they are wide 3) Slashing action or stabbing that grazes surface |
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Cleft/Notch
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-Vertically applied dynamic force
-Instrument has long, sharp edge -Hacking action = axes, meat cleavers, machete |
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Saw Marks
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Hand Held Saw:
-Even, smooth parallel lines Mechanical Saw: -Uneven, random lines Minor breaks in the bone not all the way through – hesitation/false start Hack marks – determine area between striation lines to identify weapon’s width |
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Combined Trauma
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ALWAYS look for more than one mechanism
Sharp force trauma often has a blunt force component |
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Projectile Trauma and Law Enforcement
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Goal is to provide as much information concerning the weapon as possible
-Type of firearm -Characteristics of projectile -Placement of weapon in relation to victim -Sequence of wounds -Individual traits of assailant, (e.g. height, handedness) |
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Firearms Basics
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3 main characteristics directly determine effects on bone:
Size Construction (of bullet…jacketed or not) Velocity |
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Size of Projectile
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-Caliber: diameter in mm of the barrel of firearm that correlates with the bullets
-Gauge -Number - shotguns, pellet shot, greater dispersion of smaller ammunition |
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Construction of Bullet
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Jacketed vs. Unjacketed
-Leave lead swipe = confirm gunshot injury |
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Velocity of Projectile
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Has greatest effect on wounding power and evidence left behind
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Effects of Bullet on Bone
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As bullet slows down and passes through more material – range of damage increases
Entrance wounds = small regular, inward beveling Exit wounds = large, irregular, outward beveling Overall funnel shape |
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Wound Shape
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Entrance wounds tend to be round or oval
Dependent upon angle and trajectory of bullet Round entrance = bullet trajectory perpendicular to bone Oval entrance = non-perpendicular |
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Key-Hole Defect
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Bullet grazes bone with little penetration
-Constitutes both an entrance and exit wound -More survivable |
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Gunshot Wound Fractures
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Generally occurs around the site of bullet-induced fracture in long bones
Appear as lines extending from source of injury Occurs along axis of bone |
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Description of Wounds
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Velocity:
-Low = handguns -High = rifles, more likely to exit Direction -Based on shape, alignment -Shape of entrance -Alignment of entrance/exit Sequence: -Radiating co-centric fractures |
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Determining Age at Death
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-Growth and Development
-Maturation -Degeneration -Bony Changes over Time |
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Precision
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Subadults: fetus to young adult (<18 years of age)
-Error range: 6 mo - 3 years -Older the child, more error range Adults = >18 years old -Error range: 5-15 years |
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Sub-Adult Age Estimation
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Dental Development: most accurate method of aging – extremely evolutionary based, less variation
Appearance of ossification centers Long bone measurements Epiphyseal fusion |
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Dental Development
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Most accurate age indicator in subadults
Controlled by genetic factors and evolution more than culture, climate, environment |
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Sets of Teeth
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1) Decidious (milk) dentition = 3 mo - 5 years of age
2) Permanent dentition |
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Deciduous Teeth
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2 incisors, 1 canine, 2 molars
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Permanent Teeth
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2 incisors, 1 canine, 2 pre-molars (bicuspids), 3 molars (or 2 minus the wisdom teeth)
Teeth = very durable, survive most post-mortem/archaeological situations well |
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Assessing Dental Development
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Visual inspection
Radiography (especially in juveniles) |
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Cranial Sub-Adult Indicators
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Fontanel = “Soft spots”
Skull is soft to allow for brain expansion Gaps in the newborn skull Close during life Usually fully fused at 10 -12 years old |
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Appearance of Ossification Centers
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Primary Centers: Initial area of bone development (ossification), begins in utero
Secondary Centers: Appearance at birth, epiphyses |
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Epiphysesial Fusion
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-Teenage years (10-20)
-Sometimes used to assess age (i.e. illegal immigrant checks) -Process NOT just one event -Females in advance of males by ~2 years Growth Plate = site of fusion between OC's |
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Clavicle
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Last bone used in determining age
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Sub-Adult Vertebrae
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Ring between vertebrae forming on higher joints...no ring on lower ones
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Long Bone Lengths
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Length of shaft of long bone can be used from pre-natal to ~7 years
Growth rates vary by sex, ancestry and population |
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Adult Age Indicators
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More Difficult, Less accurate
-Broader error ranges (depends on how you use your skeleton over time) |
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Adult Age Indicators - Degeneration
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Basic degeneration
Pubic symphysis – takes wear and tear on cartilige from movement Auricular surface: where the sacrum sits against the ilia of the os coxa Sternal end of 4th rib – experimentally determined to be most accurate…impact from just breathing Cranial suture closure – some individuals will have them fully fuse and close Dentition – loss/wear…much less accurate than in kids -Depends on what you actually eat |
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Arthritis
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Deterioration of joint surfaces and tissue between them
Raised bony material as a result of pressure between bones without cartilage/tissue betwen them Why we get shorter... |
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Postcranial Adult - Pubic Symphysis
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Changes in the symphysis of surface: articulation point where pubic bones meet
Deteriorates over time Young: ridges and furrows Old: Lipping and bony growths Suchey Brooks Method = 6 phases |
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Postcranial Adult - Auricular Surface
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Changes to surface where sacrum meets ilium
Similar to pubic symphysis method 8 phases |
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Postcranial Adult - Sternal Rib
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Sternal end of rib changes over time due to use (breathing)
Ossification of cartilage Right 4th rib |
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Cranial Adult Age Indicators
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Loss of teeth – Edentulous
Cusps resorb when fall out…see darker dentin = older Flattening of tooth due to chewing |
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Cranial Adult Suture Closure
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NOT a universal parameter
Over the course of adult life sutures slowly begin to close For those who it will close in…follows a pattern 4 scoring methods 0= completely open 4 = entirely closed |
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Stature
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Stature estimation in adults: performed to determine living height
Stature estimation in subadult fetuses: usually performed to assist in AGE estimates Too many variables in juveniles – cartilage, epiphyses |
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What affects stature?
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Genetics
Age Nutrition - deprived of nutrients or calories at crucial growth periods Environment |
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Stature Changes
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Increases until adulthood and decreases with senility
Twin studies: 90% of stature is genetic, 10% is environmental |
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Bergmann's Rule (1847)
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Body size is affected by climate
In cooler climate, body mass increases Lower SA: volume ratio Higher latitude = bigger bodies, shorter limbs (further from equator) |
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Allen's Rule (1877)
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Limbs/appendages are affected by climate
In warmer climates, limb length increases Greater SA: volume ratio |
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Methods of Stature Estimation
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Historical Method: Anatomical/Full Skeleton
Fully method Constraint: not always able to get a full skeleton Modern Method: long bones/regression formulae Trotter and Gleser Method |
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Problems with Stature Estimation
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1) Mismeasurement of stature in living BY living
2) Cadaver estimates can vary by as much as 2” 3) Stature varies with time of day (possible…) 4) Secular changes in collections (Terry collection when used as comparison from decades old skeletons…stature has gotten larger) 5) Bias in individual reported stature – males tend to overestimate their stature 6) Discrepancies on how to measure bones – inter-observer error |
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Fully Skeleton Method
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Stature is composed of heights/lengths of 5 skeletal structures:
Skull, vertebral column, pelvis, lower legs, ankles Determine stature from height of rearticulated skeleton Set skeleton in clay with space btw bone for tissues Usually comes w/in 1 cm of true living stature |
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Problems with Fully Skeleton Method
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-Need multiple elements
-Never sure of how much tissue in life All white males: application to females and other ancestral groups may be inaccurate Individuals died in concentration camps in WWII….severely undernourished |
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Trotter & Gleser Method
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Measures maximum length of long bones: humerus, raidus, unla, femur, tibia, fibula
Uses regression formulae to determine stature Larger sample (n = 5000) Males and females White, Black, Asians, Hispanic |
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Trotter and Gleser Analysis
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Strong correlation between:
Length of long bones/stature: esp among lower bones Right and Left sides Lengths of individual bones Dividing sample by sex and ancestry provides more accurate assessment of nature Secular trends increase Accuracy of state assessment is increased w/# of bones used |
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Problems with Trotter & Gleser's Method
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TIBIA MEASUREMENT: way in which Trotter took her measurement
No one knows exactly how Trotter did this measurement? Did she include the malleous? Research indicates she included it sometimes…not all the time |
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What happens with age?
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1) As individual ages, stature decreases
2) Reduction starts ~45 and accelerates over time (seen a lot in females, osteoporosis) 3) Results from: compression of cartilage between bone joints, collapsing of vertebrae 4) Corrections have been made that subtract from the estimated stature based on age |
