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251 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Which anthropologist coined the term "veranda studies", and why? |
Margaret Mead, because she would interview people in the comfort of their own homes/ verandas in particular |
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What is critical cultural relativism? |
a perspective that prompts people in all cultures to raise questions about their own and others' cultures and ideas, especially regarding who accepts them and why and who they might be harming or helping |
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What is ethnocentrism? |
judging other cultures by the standards of one's own culture rather than by the standards of that particular culture. |
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What is holism? |
the perspective that cultures are complex systems that cannot be fully understood without paying attention to their different components (economics, social organization and ideology) |
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Describe Marx's Idea of society's structure as a pyramid |
-bottom layer: infra-structure, indicates the mode of economy -middle layer: structure, indicate organization -top layer: super-structure, indicates ideology and identity |
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Armchair anthropology are based in studying what? Who popularized it? |
Sir James Frazer- based on studying secondary accounts and learning about other cultures through books and travel logs |
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What is field anthropology based? Who popularized it? |
Lewis Henry Morgan and Bronislaw Malinowski- based on primary experiences with participation and observation in the cultural field of study |
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What are the basic steps of doing field work? |
-selecting a cultural site, or location (community) -gaining respect or rapport of the people to be studied -exchange of gifts of compensation (given to research consultants/informants) -dealing with psychological and social anxiety and fears associated with being in a new foreign place |
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What are the primary methods used in cultural anthropology? |
-participant-observation: involves long term direct involvement, immersion and observations of cultural activities, behaviour and ideas -interviews and surveys/questionnaires: involve open and formal questioning of research consultants/informants |
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What are the two types of data in cultural anthro? |
-Quantitative data: includes numerical information, counting and the use of tables and charts in presenting results - Qualitative data: generate detailed descriptions of people's customs, behaviour and ideas. |
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Which type of data do cultural materialists tend to focus on? Interpretive anthropologists? |
-cultural materialists focus on quantitative data -interpretive anthropologists focus on qualitative data |
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What does the deductive approach in field techniques involve? |
posing a research question or hypothesis, gathering data related to the question and assessing the findings in relation to the original hypothesis |
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What does the inductive approach in field studies involve? |
defines research topics according to insiders' views or discourse through anecdotes, stories and myths |
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Give some characteristics of the realist ethnographic approach |
-uses a third person voice -uses a more scientific approach -used by cultural materialists -etic approach (outsiders view + theory based) |
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Give some characteristics of the reflexive ethnographic approach |
-explores the research experience itself -highly personalized -poetic? -emic approach (insiders view +anecdotal) -used by interpretive anthropologists |
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According to the AAA, what is an anthropologist's main responsibility when studying? |
to ensure the safety of the people being studied |
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What does economic anthropology study? |
how people cross-culturally use the environment to make their living |
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Economic systems include 3 major areas: |
-production: making goods or money -consumption: using the goods and money -exchange: transfer of goods or money between people and institutions |
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What are the 5 modes of production? |
- foraging - horticulture - pastoralism - agriculture - industrialism |
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What effects do production modes have on people? |
production modes affect the way people perceive and understand the world, also affects the way people behave in relationship to each other or their social organization and behaviour |
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What is 'epistemology'? |
a way of seeing, understanding and acting in the world- linked to economic modes of production |
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What are the two epistemologies? |
-Dualism: sorts objects/subjects according to opposite categories (mind/body, civilized/wild, culture/nature) -Relationalism: relationship between land and people (foragers, horticulturalists, pastoralists, agrarian family farming) |
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What is the oldest economic system (mode of production) existing since the first Homo Sapiens? |
Foraging (hunting/gathering) |
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What exactly is foraging? |
a means of searching for and collecting food that is available in nature (fruits, vegetables, nuts, fish, and animals) either by gathering, fishing, or hunting |
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Which mode of production involved property being equally shared among the people, where they all had equal rights to resources (land, water holes) |
Foraging |
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Describe the responsibilities of men and women in foraging societies. |
Both men and women ha equal responsibilities for foraging; however, women would forage in areas closer to camp bc they had to take care of the children, while men went farther distances for foraging |
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Give two examples of modern day foraging societies |
-the Tiwi foragers off coast of Australia -Swampy Cree foragers of N. Manitoba and N. Ontario |
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What is horticulture? |
the cultivation (planting and harvesting) of domesticated crops in garden with simple hand tools |
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Does horticulture involve any irrigation systems? |
No irrigation systems involved |
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What is shifting cultivation? |
requires crop rotation to allow for regeneration of soil |
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What are the 5 stages of the horticulture cycle? |
1. clearing 2. planting 3. weeding 4. harvesting 5. fallowing |
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What are two examples of groups of people that use horticulture |
-Yanomamo horticulturalists of South America - Maya (occupy rainforest of Yucatan Peninsula) |
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What is pastoralism? |
animal herding, it is based on the domestication of animal herds and the use of their products (meat and milk) |
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What are Use Rights? |
-a system of property relations in which a person or group has socially recognized priority in access to particular resources -nobody permanently owns the specific piece of land, rather they consent with other groups in the area if they want to reside in a particular region for a period of time |
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Give an example of pastoralist group of people |
Nuer pastoralists of Sudan, they heavily relied on their cattle |
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What are some of the new techniques involved with agriculture? |
-fertilizers -irrigation of land -monocropping -hybridization of seeds |
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Where did agriculture originate? |
the Tigris-Euphrates Valley in India and China |
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Did agriculture use land Use Rights? |
Did not use Use Rights, instead it was private land-ownership (land was inheritable from father to son) |
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How did agriculture starts the gender roles that we see today? |
Since land could only be inherited from father to son, women were then only expected to stay home and care for the kids while the men did the work in the land they inherited |
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What are the 3 types of agriculture? |
1. Family Farming (family based, large families, clear gender roles) 2. Plantations (large scale production, hired labour, severed inequality, poor social welfare for workers, mainly for tea, coffee and rubber) 3. Industrial (capital-intensive, in industrialized countries, makes luxury goods) |
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What is consumption? |
How a person utilizes resources such as food and energy and also how they are able to afford it |
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For consumption, what counts as a basic need and what counts as a secondary need? |
-Basic need: goods and basic services such as food/drink, clothing shelter -Secondary need: tools/weapons, transportation, technology, energy, luxury goods |
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What is non-market minimalism? Give examples |
A mode of consumption -emphasizes simplicity, limited consumer demands, focuses on giving people the minimum required for living -ex) foraging, horticulture, pastoralism |
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What is market consumerism? Give examples |
a mode of consumption -emphasizes complex, infinite demands -focuses on wants as opposed to needs -ex) agriculture, industrialism -secondary needs are the most important
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What are direct entitlements? |
the most secure form of entitlement (i.e. owning land, growing staple crops or unrestricted access to foods and resources) |
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what are indirect entitlements? |
ways of gaining subsistence that depend on exchange, people depend on others or on institutions |
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What are the three levels of entitlement? |
-Global (some countries are more secure in the global economy) -National -Household (some members in the house are more secure than others) |
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What is exchange? |
the transfer of goods (utilities or symbolic) between persons of institutions |
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What is reciprocity? What are the two types of reciprocity? |
-the equal giving and receiving of food, goods and services
-two types: balanced, generalized |
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What is balanced reciprocity? |
the giving of gifts of food and goods with the expectation of something in return (either immediate equal return,or later based on debt) |
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What is generalized reciprocity? |
the giving of gifts of food or goods without the expectation of something in return |
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what are redistribution systems? What are possible issues with this system? |
-one person collects goods or money from members of a group, then later returns the pooled good to everyone who contributed -risks inequality as someone might be given something of lesser value than what they contributed |
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how does the unbalanced exchange system work? Give examples |
-it is the transfer of goods from one person to another without an equivalent return -ex: market exchange, theft, exploitation, gambling |
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What is market exchange? |
the buying and selling of commodities under competitive conditions in which the forces of supply and demand determine value |
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Demography is... |
the study of population |
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what is fertility and mortality? |
-fertility: the rate of population increase through reproduction -mortality: the rate of population decrease through general old age or particular causes |
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What are some characteristics of reproduction in foraging societies? |
-model for most human history -moderate death and birth rates -moderate value for children (smaller # of children) -had direct/indirect means of fertility control (long birth intervals, prolonged breastfeeding, low fat diet for women, induced abortion and infanticide) |
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What are some characteristics of reproduction in agricultural societies? |
- high growth rate (more births than deaths) - high number of children as families require a large labour force |
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What are psychological variables? Give examples |
culturally standardized modes of cognition (based on experiences, memory, chemistry) |
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what do psychological variables usually pertain to? |
usually pertain to the body (sex, age, different stages of development, chemical and physiological developments) |
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What are socio-cultural variables? |
learned norms, scripted roles/behaviour (i.e. based on learning) |
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What are the four theoretical approaches of psychological anthropology? |
1. psychological variables are unrelated to socio-cultural (D. Freeman) 2. psychological variables are dependent on socio-cultural variables (S. Freud, and M. Mead) 3. socio-cultural variables are dependent on psychological variables (B. Malinowski) 4. Psychological variables and socio-cultural variables are distinct and interdependent (G. H. Mead) |
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George H. Mead says that a person's identity consists of two inter-relational parts... |
-the social self "me" -the private self "I" |
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Who started the American School of Culture and Personality? |
Franz Boas |
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What did Ruth Benedict's work involve? |
-cultural configuration studies - Pueblo people described as Apollonian - Kwakwaka'wakw people described as Dionysian -formed national stereotypes: "tolerant Canadian" and "domineering American" |
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What did Margaret mead's work involve? |
-research in northern New Guinea in the 30s -gender is culturally defined -culture defines personality -focused mainly on gender studies |
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How did Margaret Mead see the Arapesh people? |
both men and women were seen as feminine by western standards |
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how did Mead see the Mundugumor people? |
they were all masculine and tough, believed that children should be seen and not heard
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how did Mead see the Tchambuli people? |
there was gender reversal (by western society's standards): -men stayed home and tended to the children -women went out and did all the productive work |
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what is person-centered ethnography? |
a type of biography of the individual - focuses only on the individual - relies heavily on what people say about their perceptions and experiences -how the individual's experiences are shaped by culture |
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What does the theory of closeness say? |
separation between mother and infant has been found to alienate the mother and father, and endangers infant bonding |
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skin-on-skin contact is necessary for... |
child bonding to occur |
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What is the theory of distance and where is it seen most often? |
-theory of distance basically delays the parent-child bonding until the child has reached a certain age where the mother knows the child will survive -this is mainly seen in poor areas with high infant mortality rates (i.e. Brazilian shantytowns) |
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Sleeping pattern theory says... |
parents who sleep near or with their infants produce children who have greater ego strength and self esteem and prevents S.I.D.S. |
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What was the 6 culture study done by Beatrice and John Whiting? |
-six teams of researchers went to 6 different cultures to study the behaviour of children in kindergarten classrooms and in their homes |
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What were the findings of the 6-culture study? |
-African, Mexican and Pilipino children scored higher in nurturance and responsibility (watching over siblings while parents were working) -Japanese, Indian, and American kids scored higher on dependence (heavily relied on parents) and dominance (superiority in children) |
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what is adolescence? |
a culturally define period of maturation from around the time of puberty until adulthood is attained, marked by parenthood, marriage, or becoming economically self-sufficient |
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What is gender? |
the learned behaviour and beliefs associated with maleness and femaleness, it is culturally constructed |
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what is gender identity? |
the rites of passage and ceremony, generally serving as social recognition of the transition from child to adulthood |
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What are the three stages of rites? |
1. Separation: separation of those undergoing the rite vs those just witnessing the rite ceremony 2. Liminal (In-between): the period just before the person undergoes the change/rites 3. Incorporation: person is reincorporated back into society following their new identity with the rite they gained |
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who was the first pharmaceutical millionaire and one of the founders of the American Pharmaceutical Association? |
Dr. Townsend |
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what is sarsaparilla? |
a small ivy-like plant that was used to treat syphilis, it grows in places such as Honduras |
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When people took sarsaparilla, what did they experience? Why? |
they experienced a euphoria, later it was discovered that they experienced this because the bottles of sarsaparilla contained 50% alcohol |
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What does medical anthropology contribute to our understanding of illness/disease cross-culturally? |
-shows the interaction of biological and social factors in disease causation (how diseases get to us from farms) -analysis of western and non-western health systems -political economy of health care (who benefits from the buying/selling of medicine) |
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What is epidemiology? |
the study of the social and environmental cause and distribution of disease |
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Give an example of a local level epidemic |
the hookworm infestation in China that affected only wet-rice cultivators using human feces as fertilizer |
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Give an example of a national level epidemic |
-Asian bird flue in chickens -H1N1 from pig farming in Mexico |
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What is an example of an international epidemic? |
small pox, measles, typhus, leprosy, malaria |
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What are diseases of development? |
diseases that are caused or increased by economic development activities that affect environments and a people's relationship with the land |
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What is schistosomiasis? |
a disease that is attributed to the construction of dams and irrigation systems which causes the stagnation of water and the incubation of infectious larvae |
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what is ethnomedicine? |
the study of non-western medical systems grounded in particular social, historical and cultural contexts, and are culturally constructed |
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in ethnomedicine, what are some examples of culturally-bound syndromes (folk illnesses)? |
-agoraphobia: an obsessive fear of leaving one's home and going into public places -Old Hag/Evil Eye: belief in Mediterranean peoples on the ability to curse people by staring at them -Awas: illness believed to affect Mayan infants depending on the mother being mistreated during pregnancy -Anxiety or stress: in western cultures -Windigo Psychosis: Cree/Ojibwa belief in cannibal spirits that are attracted to people who horde food or are greedy |
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according to ethnomedicine, what are some examples of healers? |
-bonesetter -midwife -acupuncturist -general practitioner - herbalist -dentist -shaman |
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what is ethnobotany? |
an area of inquiry exploring cultural knowledge in different settings of local plants and their use for a variety of purposes |
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what percent of efficacyof medical prescriptions lies in a person’s beliefs that they are being helped?
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10-90% |
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what is the placebo effect? |
the awareness of how belief in a cure or medical practice contributes to the healing of illness and disease |
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what are the three domains of structure of health care systems? |
-popular -professional -folk |
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what is the popular domain of structure of health care systems? |
the lay, non-professional, non-specialist popular culture arena in which illness is first defined and health care activities initiated |
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what is the professional domain of structure of health care systems? |
composed of the organized healing professions, those sanctioned as such by the culture |
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what is the folk domain of structure of health care systems? |
the non-professional, non-bureaucratic , specialist sector that encompasses both sacred and secular healers: shaman, folk, psychotherapists |
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what are diseases? |
abnormalities in the structure and/or function of organs and organ systems |
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what are illnesses? |
person's feelings, perceptions and experiences of certain socially devalues or stigmatized states |
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what is a sickness? |
blanket term used to label events and experiences involving disease and/or illness that are unknown |
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what did Byron Good study? |
linked ideological elements to emotional/physical elements |
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what is 'medicalization'? |
the labelling of a health problem as medical and requiring treatment |
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what does the political-economy of health care systems consider? |
the way economic and political structure shapes people's health status, and access to health care and prevailing healing systems |
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what are clinical anthropologists at the forefront of doing? |
helping biomedical clinicians prevent diagnostic and communication errors when dealing with people who have alternative medical models |
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what is medical pluralism? |
the simultaneous existence of more than one model of prevention, diagnosis and cure in society |
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what are kinship relations? What are kinship systems? |
-the most socially intense human relationships we experience -kinship systems: the combination of ides about who are kin and what kinds of behaviour kinship relationships involve |
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describe kinship in small-scale societies |
-primary organization principle for arranging people into coherent social groups -ensure group continuity (through marriages and births) -maintain norms and social order -regulate economy |
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what percent of the world uses patrilineal descent? Matrilineal? Bilateral? |
Patrilineal: 44% Matrilineal: 15% Bilateral: <30% |
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Describe kinship in large-scale societies |
-kinship is less involved -other personal relations define our memberships and identities (friends, employment, religious affiliations) |
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what are the six kinship systems that categorize family relations cross-culturally? |
-Sudanese -Hawaiian -Omaha -Eskimo -Crow -Iroquois |
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what is a genealogy? |
a diagram tracing descent to a common, earliest ancestor |
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what percent of the world utilizes unilineal descent? |
60% of the world cultures |
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What is the difference between the modes of production that unilineal and bilateral descent focus on? |
-Unilineal: focuses on stable resources, i.e. foraging, horticulture, pastoralism -Bilateral: rely on flexible division of labour between both genders |
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Give an example of food-based kinship? |
women in Southeast Asia breastfeed the children of other women which forms a kinship bond between the children |
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Describe two examples of fictive marriages |
Both in Nuer people of Sudan: -Woman-woman marriages (when no sons are born, two women may get married and one acts as the husband) -Ghost Marriages: (when a husband dies before his children are born, his wife may marry again, usually his brother, children are then considered part of the dead husband's patriline |
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what is exogamy? endogamy? |
exogamy: marrying from outside one's descent group endogamy: marrying within one's descent group, often through 'cross cousins' |
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what are cross cousins? Parallel cousins? |
cross cousins: mother's brother's children OR father's sister's children parallel cousins: mother's sister's children OR father's brother's children |
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what are three types of gift exchange in kinship/marriages? |
-dowry: the transfer of goods (sometimes money) from the bride's side to the new marriage couple -brideprice: transfer of goods or money from the groom's side to the bride's parents -Bride-service: the transfer of labour from the groom to his in-laws for a designated time |
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describe the formal and informal economies |
-formal: male dominated, legal market place and systems, "public domain" -informal: female dominated, primarily for enculturation of children, "private domain"
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describe a 'nuclear' household. What percent of the world? |
-one monogamous married couple living with or without children -25% of the world |
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describe extended households. what percent of the world? |
-more then one married couple (either monogamous or polygamous) living in one house, related usually through unilineal descent |
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what is a stem household? |
when members of an extended household leave, the ones that remain are the 'stem' |
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what are the functions of households? |
-economic production: securing and guaranteeing the reproduction of labour -subsistence production: domestic work for feeding/supporting kin -social production: giving birth, preparing food, providing affection |
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what is a social group? |
a cluster of people beyond the domestic unit who are usually related on grounds other than kinship |
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what are the two basic types of social groups? |
-primary groups: people interact face-to-face and know each other personally -secondary groups: people who may never meet but identify with each other on some common ground |
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what is the difference between informal and formal social groups? |
-informal groups: smaller and less visible, members have close face-to-face relationships
- larger and more visible, members have impersonal, indirect relationships |
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what are friendships? |
-voluntary, non-kin groups, informal -supportive -mutual, occurring between social equals |
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what are some examples of secondary groups? |
-clubs and fraternities/sororities -counter-cultural groups -work groups -cooperatives -activists |
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give examples of counter-cultural groups |
-motorcycle gangs -youth gangs -street gangs -body-modification groups |
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what are some similarities/differences between Hell's Angels (counter-cultural group) and the RCMP |
-similarities: hierarchical in structure, rules/norms, roles, uniforms and statuses -differences: one is pro-society and the other is anti-society |
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give characteristics of work-groups |
-usually organized to perform specific tasks but can also provide friendships and other relations -found in all modes of production - |
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what are the two key features of cooperatives? |
-surpluses are shared among members -decision making is based on democratic principle of one person-one vote |
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what are the two possible memberships in social stratification? |
-ascribed (the positions you are born into) -achieved (the positions that can be achieved/attained through actions) |
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what is mechanical solidarity? organic solidarity |
-mechanical: people of similar skill sets unite for a common purpose -organic solidarity: people of different skill sets unite to create specialization in society |
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give some examples of ascribed memberships/positions |
-race -ethnicity -sex -caste |
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where is the caste system? |
-a system of social stratification found mainly in Hindu populations in India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Fiji |
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what are the levels of the caste system? |
-Brahman (priests) -Kshatriya (warriors) -Vaishya (merchants) -shudras (labourers) -beneath the shudras are the untouchables |
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what is political anthropology? |
the study of power relationships in the public domain and how they vary and change cross-culturally -examines leadership roles and responsibilities, and the distribution of power |
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compare political organization in small scale and large scale societies |
-small scale: power is decentralized, power is not held by one individual but rather by elders in communities -large scale: power is centralized, all the power is in one place, leaders have more power |
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what does 'politics' refer to? |
culturally defined conflict over the use of power whether in public or private domain |
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define: power, authority and influence |
power: the capacity to take action in the face of resistance, through force if necessary Authority: ability to take action based on person's achieved or ascribed status, moral reputation, or other basis for respect Influence: ability to achieve a desired end through exerting social or moral pressure on someone or some group |
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what are the three layers of politics |
-most surface layer: power -second layer: authority -core: influence |
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what are political organizations |
groups that exist for the purpose of public decision making and leadership, maintaining social cohesion and order, protecting group rights |
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what are the common features of political Organization (rippia) |
-recruitment principles -perpetuity (an assumption that a group will exist indefinitely) -identity markers (a symbol to identify the interests of the organization) -internal organization (arrangement of members in relation to each other) -procedures (prescribed rules that influence the behaviour of group members) -autonomy (the ability of each government to make its own decisions) |
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what are the four major types of political organization? |
Bands Tribes/Big-Men Chiefdoms States |
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What are the characteristics of a band? |
-temporary part time leaders with specific skill sets -foraging groups -20 to a few hundred people make up the tribe -membership is flexible |
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how is leadership in bands achieved? |
when a person acts in a situation in which others don't, the people in the band will follow them |
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tribes are composed of several ________ |
bands |
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what is the common name given to the leader of the leader of a tribe? |
headman or big-man |
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what mode of production is involved with tribal organization |
pastoralism and horticulture |
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is leadership in tribes achieved or ascribed? |
both, it is a combination of achieved and ascribed |
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is leadership in chiefdoms ascribed or achieved? |
ascribed through birth |
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is there any stratification present between leaders and followers in bands? |
no, there is no stratification as the leadership itself is minimal |
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in what group is the leader "a first among equals" |
a band |
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what do the leadership activities of a band leader include? |
-choosing where to go for foraging -how to divide the food among the group members |
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what is the size range of a tribe? |
100- several thousand |
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what are characteristics of a big-man or big-woman |
-hardworking -generous -good personal skills |
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how are followers of big-men and big-women related to each other? |
related to each other through unilineal descent |
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what do the Melanesian big men rely on? |
a faction of 8 close men that represent the big-man's interests in their local villages |
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what are chiefdoms? |
groups of allied and united tribes and villages under one recognized ascribed leader |
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what form of production is involved with chiefdoms? |
agriculture |
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what are the responsibilities of the leader of a chiefdom? |
-distribution, planning and leading raids -sorting problems with other chiefdoms |
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does a chief have a faction of close members? |
yes- a coeterie. the men of the coeterie are all very respected |
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describe the power involved with states? |
-more centralized, encompasses many communities and possesses coercive power |
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where does the earliest evidence of states come from? |
-Mesopotamia -Egypt -China -India -Aztecs -Mayans |
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which political organization has a wide variety of legal specialists (i.e. lawyers, judges, policemen)? |
states |
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what is the name of the theory about how states are formed? who was it proposed by? |
the circumscription theory by Robert L. Carniero |
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what is the circumscription theory about? |
-the tight bounding of smaller area, along with population growth, where one group will eventually take over another through warfare and conquest |
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describe the process of how states form? |
-agriculture starts -settled villages established -populations increase (through pronatalism) -there is increased pressure on resources -intervillage conflict/warfare -chiefdom forms as one village conquers another -continued population growth and pressure on resources - intervillage conflict/warfare over resources -states form as one chiefdom conquers another |
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what are three powers of nation states? |
-defined citizenship (which monopolize the use of force for maintaining law and order) -maintaining standing armies -use of censuses and surveillance systems |
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what was the panopticon? |
a big round building in which prisoners were kept, the prisoner inmates were kept in well lit cells while the guards in the centre of the panopticon were in darkness that way cell inmates could not tell if they were being watched or not- this enforced a method of self-control of the inmates |
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what are the two forms of control present in social control systems? |
-internal controls (socialization for proper behaviour, education and peer pressure) -formal controls (codified rules about proper behaviour and punishments for deviation) |
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what are norms? |
agreed-upon standards learned through enculturation |
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what are laws? |
binding, codified rules created through the enactment or custom that defines rights and responsibilities |
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describe social control in small-scale societies |
-formal laws are rare -punishment is usually done through naming and shaming -punishment is legitimized through belief in supernatural forces -capital punishment is rare |
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describe social control in states? |
-social control done through laws
-capital punishment may be used -process is more formal |
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what is feuding? |
long term retributive violence that may be lethal between families or kin groups motivated by revenge? |
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what is ethnic conflict? |
-when one ethnic group attempts to gain autonomy over another - ethnocide |
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what is revolution? is it legal or illegal |
political crisis propelled by illegal actions which threaten to change the structure of the government institution |
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what is warfare? |
organized, purposeful violent action |
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what is non-violent conflict? |
swaying people in charge by taking collective action without violence |
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describe the 2 ethnographies of the Yanomamo people and their feuding |
-Napoleon Chagnon said the Yanomamo were violent people - Brian ferguson said that they were peaceful people and that Chagnon just went and saw them in their most turbulent period in history (because of the presence of new colonial settlements and outposts; and competition between villages for Western goods) |
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What is the definition of religion according to James Frazer |
religion attempts to please supernatural forces |
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What is the definition of religion according to Emile Durkheim |
religion serves society by giving it cohesion through shared symbols and rituals |
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What is the definition of religion according to Sigmund Freud |
religion is a projective system that expresses people's unconscious thoughts, wishes and worries |
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What is the definition of religion according to Geertz? |
religion offers a model of life |
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what is the simple definition of religion |
beliefs and actions related to supernatural beings and forces |
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what are the four functions of religion |
-intellectual/cognitive -psychological -sociological -symbolic |
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explain the intellectual/cognitive function of religion |
helps us satisfy the uniquely human desire to explain and understand things and events |
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which two people were involved in the study of the intellectual/cognitive function of religion? |
-James Frazer - Edward Tylor |
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what did Edward Tylor say about primitive societies and religion? |
-said that primitive societies developed religion to understand the concept of the soul and to know where it went after death |
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what is animism? |
the primitive belief in the afterlife |
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what did James Frazer say about the intellectual/cognitive function of religion? what did he define magic as? |
-popularized Tylor's idea of animism -magic: the primitive belief in animism |
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what are the two laws of magic according to james frazer ? |
-law of similarity (like produces like) -law of contagion (contact = control) (this is the concept of voodoo where if you have a piece of somebody, you can control them) |
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which two people were involved with studying religion's psychological function? |
sigmund freud and bronislaw malinowski |
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what is the main idea behind religion having a psychological function? |
-reduces anxiety -helps individuals deal with life's tribulations as they feel these tribulations can be alleviated with rituals and that they all happen for a reason |
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what did sigmund freud see religion as being? |
a projective system that expresses people's unconscious thoughts, wishes and worries |
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how did malinowsky apply his view religion to his study of the trobrianders? |
-it was a way of reducing anxiety and uncertainty -they would pray for fruitful harvests and fishing |
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what is the sociological function of religion? |
instills common values in a group of people, forms cohesion among people in a community |
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who said that religion is the "opiate of the masses"? |
-Karl Marx -supports oppressive political and economic structures relating to labor |
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what is a symbol? |
an object, word, or action with culturally defined meaning that stands for something else |
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what did Victor Turner stress about religion? |
-examined/stressed the Ritual process |
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what did Clifford Geertz examine religion as? (REVIEW IN MORE DETAIL) |
-as a cultural pattern that provides meaning to the world and people, in relation to local interpretations of symbols |
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what is the concept of interpretive drift? who proposed it? |
-Tanya Luhrmann -the slow shift in someone's manner of interpreting events as they become involved with a particular activity -people will interpret their everyday events through the new of belief that they follow, they start to apply their belief in their everyday lives |
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what is secondary elaboration in religion? who was it proposed by? |
-proposed by Evans Prichard - it is a type of rationalizing process - people's attempts to explain inconsistencies in their beliefs |
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give an example of secondary elaboration |
the azande- when something goes wrong in their belief or in the practice, the diviner (oracle) will think of any way to justify it |
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what is the concept of selective attention? who proposed it? |
-evans-prichard -people choose to see only the things/explanations that support their views |
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what are the four ways in which people form, defend and change their religious beliefs? |
-interpretive drift -secondary elaboration -suppressing evidence -selective attention |
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how are beliefs about the supernatural expressed? |
-supernatural powers are expressed as supernatural beings or supernatural forces |
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compare and contrast supernatural beings and supernatural forces |
-supernatural beings are expressed in zoomorphic or anthropomorophic ways- having a body and a presence -supernatural forces are impersonal, elemental, controlled by rituals for good or bad |
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give the characteristics of myths |
-oral narratives or stories -indirect learning, personalized -common in pre-industrialized societies -based on the memories of storytellers |
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do myths remain constant always? |
no- they change based on the time they are being told and the people they are being told to |
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give the characteristics of doctrines |
-direct, formalized statements about religion and beliefs legitimized by the state and the Ecclesiastical leader -institutionalized texts |
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what are rituals? |
shared, scripted, sacred performance intended to influence various powers for the benefit of people |
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what are three types of rituals? |
-life-cycle rituals -planting/harvesting rituals -crisis rituals |
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give some examples of life-cycle rituals |
-births, marriages, funeral rites -rites of passage (separation, transition, reintigration) |
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what is syncretism |
the attempt to merge different religions, cultures, or schools of thought |
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what are revitalization movements? how do they attempt to do what they do? |
-organized movements that seeks to construct a more satisfying culture -they can re-establish all or parts of a religion that has been threatened OR they can adopt new practices and beliefs |
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Give examples of revitalization movements in religion? |
-Ghost Dances: Wodziwob tribe declared the world would end, so they performed circle dances to encourage spirits to bring renewal -Mormons and Jehovah's Witness: apply the older teachings of Christianity to modern life -Cargo Cults: viewed that cargo goods (from Western ships) are blessings sent by supernatural forces -Abishabis- the Cree prophet: man who said he met God when he entered into a trance- convinced Cree people to follow him |
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how is witchcraft and sorcery viewed cross-culturally? |
it is seen as the misuse of supernatural powers |
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what does sorcery involve? give an example |
the use of ritual objects to achieve negative ends -voodoo dolls |
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what does witchcraft involve? give an example |
the use of emotion and thought to achieve negative ends -casting a spell |
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what is cognitive interpretation in witchcraft and sorcery? |
-used to explain unfortunate events -identifies a scapegoat (acts a remedy for unfortunate situations) |
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compare if a witch/sorcerer is internalized or externalized give examples |
-internalized: witch is from within community, fractures the community. eg: Salem witches -externalized: witch is not from within community, unites the community against a common enemy. eg: Azande |
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what do linguistic anthropologists study? |
-human communication -the conveyance of messages between individuals eye contact, body posture, movements -language |
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what are the three types of linguistics? |
-Historical: studies the origins and development of language through examination of protolanguages -Descriptive/Structural: studies the building blocks of language (sounds, vocab, grammar) -Socio-Linguistics: studies discourse of language through conversation |
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what is 'language'? |
a form of communication that is systematic, involved symbols shared among a group of people and is passes down generations |
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what did Franz Boas and Edward Sapir study? |
non-western languages of Aboriginal peoples |
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how many years ago did verbal language originate? |
50,000 years ago |
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what are the three key characteristics of language? |
-infinity productivity: infinite messages can be conveyed with different combinations of words and symbols -Displacement: language can be used to convey ideas and experiences removed in time -Arbitraries: forms of words and their meanings are independent and arbitrary |
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what is phonology? what are phonemes? |
-phonology: rules for combining sound-units -phonemes: basic building blocks of language |
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what is morphology in language? |
-morphology: rules of word formation -morphemes: smallest meaningful unit in the construction of meaningful word forms |
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what are the two types of word forms? |
-stand-alone words (cat, cake, hair) -combinations (degeneration, disagree, present) |
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what is syntax? |
rules for sentence formation |
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what are metaphors? |
the use of analogies or domains of experience for conveying meaning to others |
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what are semantics? |
the science of how meaning is produced |
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what are the 3 primary relationships between language and culture according to Whorf? |
-vocabulary (reflects social/physical environment) -grammar (different types of sentences based on each culture) -metaphors (liken cultural aspects to language- i.e. shoulder of the road) |
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what does the sapir-whorf hypothesis say about thought, language and society? |
our language shapes the way we think and perceive the world (shapes our reality)
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what does the socio-linguistic hypothesis say? |
an individual's social class shapes the way he/she talks |
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what are the 6 versions of the sapir-whorf hypothesis? |
-thoughts are determined by language -behaviour is determined by language -language reflects the values of people -language is a filter for viewing the world -language is a frame of reference -strong vs weak versions |
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what are the three approaches of the sapir-whorf hypothesis? |
-Boas: language shapes/influences our thoughts -Sapir: language directs/determines our thoughts -Whorf: language is a vehicle for expressing our thoughts |
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what are the conculsions of the sapir-whorf hypothesis? |
-form and function of words is more important than their meaning -language/vocabulary directs our perceptions of the world |
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what are some of the critiques to sapir-whorf hypothesis? |
-if thought determines language, what existed before language? |
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what can conversational styles/patterns be organized by? |
class, gender, profession |
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which linguist studied conversational pattern based on class? |
-William Labov -studied conversational patterns of people in New York, people were of different classes |
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which linguist studied conversational patterns based on gender? |
Deborah Tannen -western women ask more questions (enables men to have the floor) -western men ask less questions (challenges their masculinity) |
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what is focal vocabulary? |
a rich cluster of words that refer to important features of a particular culture |
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compare code mixing and code switching |
-code switching: switching from one conversational pattern to another -code mixing: blending more than one conversational style |
