Ant 201

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adaptation

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process by which organisms develop physical and behavioral characteristics allowing them to survive and reproduce in their habitats

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hunting and gathering
(foraging)

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adaptations based on the harvest of wild (undomesticated) plants and animals.

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agriculture
(cultivation)

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intentional planting, cultivation, care and harvest of domesticated food plants.

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herding
(pastoralism)

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adaptations based on tending, breeding and harvesting the products of domesticated animals

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bands

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a small foraging group with flexible composition that migrates seasonally

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domestication

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the process by which people control the distribution, abundance, and biological features of certain plants and animals in order to increase their usefulness to humans.

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horticulture

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a method of cultivation in which hand tools powered by human muscles are used and in which land use is extensive.

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intensive agriculture

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a system of agriculture in which plots are planted annually or semiannually; usually uses irrigation, natural fertilizers, and (in the Old World) plowed by animals.

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surplus

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the amount of food (or other goods) a worker produces in excess of the consumption of herself or himself and her or his dependents.

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civilization

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a form of complex society in which many people live in cities.

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peasants

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rural people who are integrated into a larger society politically and economically

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nomadism

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seasonal mobility, often involving migration to high-altitude areas during the hottest and driest parts of a year.

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reciprocity

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the transfer of goods for goods between two or more individuals or groups

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redistribution

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the collection of goods or money from a group, followed by a reallocation to the group by a central authority

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market

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exchange by means of buying and selling, using money

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generalized reciprocity

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the giving of goods without expectation of a return of equal value at any definite future time

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balanced reciprocity

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the exchange of goods considered to have roughly equal value; social purposes usually motivate the exchanges

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negative reciprocity

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exchange motivated by the desire to obtain goods, in which the parties try to gain all the material good they can

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social distance

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the degree to which cultural norms specify that two individuals or groups should be helpful to, intimate with, or emotionally attached to one another.

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tribute

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the rendering of goods (usually food) to an authority such as a chief

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limited-purpose money

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money that may be used to purchase only a few kinds of goods

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consanguines

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blood relatives, or people related by birth

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affines

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in-laws, or people related by marriage

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kin group

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a group of people who conceive themselves to be relatives, cooperate in certain activities, and share a sense of identity as kinfolk.

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nuclear family

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amily group consisting of a married couple and their offspring

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fictive kinship

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condition in which people who are not biologically related behave as if they relatives of a certain type.

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extended family (extended household)

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a group of nuclear related families

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incest taboo

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prohibition against sexual intercourse between certain types of relatives

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exogamous rules

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marriage rules prohibiting individuals to marry a member of their own social group or category.

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endogamous rules

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marriage rules requiring individuals to marry some member of their own social group or category.

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monogamy

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each individual is only allowed to have one spouse at a time.

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polygyny

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man is allowed to have multiple wives

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polyandry

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woman is allowed to have multiple husbands.

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group marriage

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several men and several women are married to one another simultaneously

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polygamy

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multiple spouses

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marriage alliances

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the relationships created between families or kin groups by intermarriage.

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levirate

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custom whereby a widow marries a male relative (usually a brother) of a deceased husband

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sororate

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custom whereby a widower marries a female relative of his deceased wife

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bridewealth

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custom in which a prospective groom and his relatives are required to transfer goods to the relatives of the bride to validate the marriage

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dowry

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custom in which the family of the woman transfers property or wealth to her and or her husband's family upon her marriage

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postmarital residence pattern

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where the majority of newly married couples locate residence after their marriage

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patrilocal residence

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couples live with or near the husband's parents

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matrilocal residence

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couples live with or near the wife's parents

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ambilocal residence

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residence form in which couples choose whether to live with the wife's or the husband's family

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bilocal residence

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postmarital residence in which the couple move between the household of both sets of parents.

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neolocal residence

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couples establish a separate household apart from both the husband's and wife's parents.

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avunlocal residence

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couples live with or near the mother's brother of the husband

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matrifocal family

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family group consisting of a mother and her children, with a male only loosely attached or not present at all.

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form of descent

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how a people trace their descent from previous generations.

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unilineal descent

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descent through 'one line', usually through matrilineal or patrilineal descent

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patrilineal descent

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form of descent in which individuals trace their most important kinship relationships through their fathers.

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matrilineal descent

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form of descent in which individuals trace their primary kinship relationships through their mothers

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descent groups

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a group whose members believe themselves to be descended from a common ancestor

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unilineal descent group

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descent though "one line", including patrilineal and matrilineal descent

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unilineally extended family

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family grouping formed by tracing kinship relationships though only one sex, either female or male but not both.

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lineage

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a unilineal descent group larger than an extended family whose members can actually trace how they are related.

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clans

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a named unilineal descent group, some of whose members are unable to trace how they are related but who still believe themselves to be kinfolk

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cognatic descent

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form of descent in which relationships may be traced through both females and males

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cognatic descent group

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a group of relatives created by the tracing of relationships through both females and males

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bilateral

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kinship system in which individuals trace their kinship relations equally through both parents

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kindred

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all the bilateral relatives of an individual

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kin terms

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the words/labels that an individual uses to refer to his or her relatives of various kinds

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kinship terminology

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the logically consistent system by which people classify their relatives into labeled categories, or into "kinds of relatives"

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cultural construction of kinship

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the idea that the kinship relationships a given people recognize do not perfectly reflect biological relationships; reflected in kinship terminology.

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Eskimo terminology

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kinship terminology system in which no nuclear family kin term is extended to more distant relatives; nuclear family members have unique names.

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Hawaiian Terminology

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kin terminology system in which sex and generation are relevant in defining labeled categories of relatives

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Iroquois Terminology

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kinship terminology system in which Ego calls parallel cousins the same terms as siblings, calls father's brother the same as father, calls mother's sister the same as mother, and uses unique terms for the children of the father's sister and mother's brother.

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Omaha terminology

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kinship terminology system associated with patrilineal descent in which Ego's mother's relatives are distinguished only by their sex.

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simple bands

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autonomous or independent political units, often consisting of little more than an extended family, with informal leadership vested in one of the older members.

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composite bands

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autonomous (independent) political units consisting of several extended families that live together for most or all of the year

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big men

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political leaders who do not occupy formal offices and whose leadership is based on influence, not authority

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influence

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the ability to convince people they should act as you suggest.

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authority

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the recognized right of an individual to command another to act in a particular way; legitimate power

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tribes

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autonomous political unit encompassing a number of distinct, geographically dispersed communities that are held together by sodalities.

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sodalities

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formal institutions that cross-cut communities and serve to unite geographically scattered groups; may be based on kin groups (clans or lineages) or non-kin-based groups (age grades or warrior societies)

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chiefdoms

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centralized political systems with authority vested in formal, usually hereditary offices or titles.

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states

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a centralized, multilevel political unit characterized by the presence of a bureaucracy that acts on behalf of the ruling elite

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social control

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refers to the diverse ways in which the behaviors of the members of society are constrained into socially approved channels

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law

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a kind of social control characterized by the presence of authority, intention of universal application, obligation, and sanction

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self-help legal systems

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informal legal systems in societies without centralized political systems, in which authorities who settle disputes are defined by circumstances of the case.

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feud

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a method of dispute settlement in self-help legal systems involving multiple but balanced killings between members of two or more kin groups

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court legal systems

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systems in which authority for settling disputes and punishing crimes is formally vested in a single individual or group

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incipient courts

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court systems in which judicial authorities met, frequently informally, in private to discuss issues and determine solutions to be imposed. Evidence is not formally collected and the partied involved in theses cases are not formally consulted.

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courts of meditation

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court systems in which the judges attempt to reach compromise solutions, based on the cultural norms and values of the parties involved, which will restore the social cohesion of the community.

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courts of regulation

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court systems that use codified law, with formally prescribed rights, duties and sanctions.

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reasonable-person model

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a model used in legal reasoning that basically asks how a reasonable individual should have acted under these circumstances