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114 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Epithelial tissue
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Composed of sheets of cells that cover and line other tissues. It is well grounded to underlying structures, epithelia have an exposed surface that affords access to the surrounding environment or to the inner opennings of chambers and ducts.
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Glandular Epithelia
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Epithelia that engage in the manufacture and release of substances. Substances produced lubricate parts of the body, such as the mucus secreted in the colon, whereas others play a vital role in producing biochemical substances that influence physiological events. Ex: hormones, milk, sweat, enzymes.
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Excretion
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Substances that ultimately leave the body, such as sweat, urine, and feces
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Secretion
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Substances that remain within the body such as regulatory molecules and mucus.
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Functions of epithelial tissue
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- Protects, covers, and lines - Filters biochemical substances - Absorbs nutrients - Manufactures secretion - Manufactures excretion |
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Characteristics of Epithelia
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Epithelial cells are organized into tightly packed groups that form sheets of tissue. These sheets may be composed of either a single layer or multiple layers of cells, depending on where they are located in the body.
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Polar
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They have a sense of direction relative to surrounding structures
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Apical Surface
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The side of the cell that faces the lumen or body cavity
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Basal Surface
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The side of the cell that faces the underlying connective tissue.
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Junctional Complexes
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Epithelial cells have lateral surfaces that are connected to neighboring cells by junctional complexes. These junctions bring the cells into close apposition to one another leaving little room for extracellular matrix.
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Avascular
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All epithelial cells lack blood vessels or capillaries. They are avascular and rely on underlying connective tissue to provide oxygen and nutrients.
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Innervated
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Some epithelia lack nerves, such as those in the stomach, intestines,and cervix, but mose epithelial cells provide valuable sensory input.
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Junctional complexes
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The plasma membranes of epithelial cells are joined to form specialized attachments. This gives epithelial tissue surprising strength even though the attachments only involve a small portion of the cell membrane. 3 Major types: Tight Junctions, Desmosomes, Gap Junctions |
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Tight Junctions
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Formed by the fusion of the outermost layers of the plasma membranes of adjoining cells. The matrix filled space between cells is lost at the site of a tight junction. Tight junctions are found in tissues in which there can be no leaks, such as the urinary bladder and digestive tract. This forces material to pass through the cells.
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Desmosome
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Strong, welded plaque which connects the plasma membranes of adjacent cells. The bond is a mechanical coupling formed by filaments that interlock with one another. Since desosomes form tough bonds berween cells they are found most commonly in tissues that undergo repeated episodes of tension and stretching, such as the skin, heart, and uterus.
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Tonofilaments aka intermediate filaments |
They extend from the plaque into the cytoplasm of each cell like anchors, forming stabilizing bases for the membrane junctions.
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Gap Junctions
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Cells that are linked by tubular channel proteins called connexons which extend from the cytoplasm of one cell to the cytoplasm of the other. Transmembrane proteins allow the exchange and passage of ions and nutrients, such as nucleotides, sugars, amino acids from one cell to another. Most commonly found in intestinal epithelial cells, heart and smooth muscle cells. The role in cardiac and smooth muscles cells allows the transport of electrical signals quickly so that they can coordinate the contraction at the same time.
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Basement Membrane aka Basal Lamina |
The foundation of the epithelial cell. It is a nonliving meshwork of fibers that cements the epithelial cell to the underlying connective tissue. Oxygen and nutrient molecules are supplied to epithelial by diffusin through the basement membrane from capillaries in the underlying connective tissue. Similarly nutrient substances absorbed and waste excreted diffuse across the basement membrane into the blood supply of the underlying connective tissue.
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Surface Specialization
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The surfaces of epithelial cells vary depending on where the epithelium is located in the body and more importantly, what role it plays in the function of the tissue.
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Smooth
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The epithelia that line blood vessels have smooth surfaces to allow the easy passage of blood cells.
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Microvilli aka Brush Border |
The brush border greatly increases the surface are of the cell, therby increasing the absorptive ability of the cell. Microvilii occur on cells that are involved in absorption or secretion such as in the intestinal and urinary tract.
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Cilia
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Found on the free surface of cells, usually in the respiratory and urogenital tracts. In the trachea, cilia help to propel mucus and debris up and away from the lungs toward the mouth. Ciliary movement occurs in coordinated beats, which enable the efficient transport of materials. Electrical pulses synchronize this wave.
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keratin
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Epithelial cells of the skin become filled with a protective, waterproof substance called keratin. The accumulation of keratin occurs as the cell matures and moves from the basal layer to the superficial layer of the integument.
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Simple Epithelia
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When there is only a single layer of epithelial cell. Simple epithelia provide little protection to the underlying connective tissue and therefore are found in protected areas of the body, such as internal compartments, ducts, vessels, and passageways.
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Stratified epithelia
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When there is more than one layer of cells. Stratified epithelia on the other hand, are thicker and stronger and are found in areas of the body that are subjected to mechanical and chemical stress.
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Shape of the cells
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Epithelial cells may take on many shapes, such as squamous, cuboidal and columnar. In stratified epithelium, many different cell shapes are visible within the same tissue, but the classification is based on the shape of the cell that resides on the exposed (luminal) surface. Ex: Stratified squamous epithelium is cuboidal on the basement, but squamous on the luminal surface.
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Presence of surface specialization
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Terms for surface specialization such as cilia and keratinized, may be added to the classification of epithelia to indicate and increased level of specialization. Ex: keratinized stratified squamous epithelium is found on the skin or nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium is found in the mouth
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Simple Squamous Epithelium
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The are delicate and thin. They are often found lining surfaces involved in the passage of either gas or liquid, like the lungs where oxygen is absored and carbon dioxide released, and in kidneys, where water and other small molecules are excreted in urine. Because these cells are flat and smooth, they are important in reducing friction and are found in blood vessels. Due to their fragile nature they are required to occur only in protected regions of the body.
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Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
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Composed of a single layer of cubic cells. Their round, dark staining nuclei are seen to be aligned in a single row that resembles a string of pearls. These cells provide little protection from abrasion, therefore they occur in sheltered regions of the body where secretion and absoption take place. Ex: ovaries, glands, thyroid, liver, pancreas, kidney.
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Simple Columnar Epithelium
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Elongated and closely packed together, making the epithelia relatively thick and more protective than simple squamous and cuboidal epithelia. The nuclei are aligned in a row at the base of the cell near the basement membrane. They line the length of the G.I tract from the stomach to the rectum. They are also associated with the absortion and secretion.
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Stratified Squamous Epithelium
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Consists of various cell layers. It occurs in regions of the body that are subject to mechanical and chemical stresses such as the linings of the mouth, esophagus, vagina and rectum. The epithelial cells that make up the outer surface are continually being worn away or sheared off, but they are replaced at an equal rate by cells from deper layers.
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Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium
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Occurs as 2 layers of cuboidal cells and is found primarily along large excretory ducts, such as sweat glands, mammary glands and salivary glands. Important in protecting delicate tissues in deeper layers.
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Stratified Columnar Epithelium
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Is rare and found only in select parts of the respitory, digestive, and reproductive system and along some excretory ducts.
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Pseudostrafified Columnar Epithelium
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Not a truly stratified epithelial tissue. Cells appear to be stratified because the nuclei are found at different levels across the length of the tissue. Not all cells reach the luminal surface, but each cell attaches to the basement membrane. Since they form a single layer, it is considered a simple epithelium. Most is ciliated and found in respiratory tract nd portions of the male reproductive tract.
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Transitional Epithelium
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Has the remarkable ability to stretch and is found in regions of the body that require require to expand and contract. Ex: urinary bladder, ureter, urethra and calyxes of kidneys. The appearance varies depending how much it is stretched. Ex Empty is thick, multilayered and rounded cells on the luminal surface. When filled, the apical cells become squamous. This forms a leakproof membrane that prevents the diffusion of urine into the abdominal cavity.
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Characteristics of C.T
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Found everywhere in the body and represents the most abundant tissue type by weight. C.T is composed primarily of nonliving extracellular matrix. Matrix surrounds and seperates the cells providing structural and nutritional support that enables C.T cells to exist farther apart. Unlike epithelial cells, C.T is vascularized.
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3 Distinct Components of C.T
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- Ground Substance - Extracellular Fibers - Cells |
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Ground Substance
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It is an amorphous, homogenous material that ranges in texture from a liquid or gel to a calcified solid. In soft connective tissue it is composed of glycoproteins. Ground substance is the medium through which cells exchange nutrients and waste with the bloodstream. Also acts as a shock absorbing cushion and helps protect the delicate cells it envelopes. In addition, its thickness serves as an obstacle for invading microbes.
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Fibers of C.T
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Contains 3 types of fibers: - Collagenous - Reticular - Elastic |
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Collagenous Fibers aka White Fibers |
Strong, thick strands composed of structural protein collagen. They posses tremendous tensile strength, enabling them to resist pulling forces which are found in tendons and ligaments. Collagenous tissue range from loose as in the tissue that surrounds and protects organs, to dense which is seen in tendons.
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Reticular Fibers
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Composed of collagen, but not as thick. They are thin, delicate and branch into complicated networks. They provide support for highly cellular organs such as endocrine glands, lymph nodes, spleen, bone marrow, liver, blood vessels, nerves, muslce fibers and capillaries.
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Elastic Fibers aka Yellow Fibers |
Composed primarily of the protein elastin. Like reticular fibers, elastic fibers are branched and form complex networks, but lack tensile strength of collagenous fibers. Composed of bundles of microfibrils and because they are coiled, they can stretch and contract like rubber bands. These fibers occur in tissues that commonly stretch like vocal cords, lungs, skin and walls of blood vessels.
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Major Cell Types
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- Fixed Cells - Transient Cells |
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Fixed Cells
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Remain in the C.T and usually involed in the producuction and maintenance of the matrix. The mose noteworthy fixed cell is the fibroblast.
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Fibroblast
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Large Irregularly shaped cells that manufacture and secrete both fibers and the ground substance characteristics of their matrix. Fibroblasts reproduce and are very active. Each type of connective tissue is characterized by a predominant fibroblast.
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Fibrocyte
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As cells mature and the matrix is formed the cells adopt a less active role. When this occurs, the name of the cell adopts the suffix cyte. If additional matrix is required later, the cells can convert back to the blast form.
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Adipose Cells aka adipocytes |
Fat cells found throughout the C.T. As young cells, adipocytes resemble fibroblasts, but as they mature, they fill with lipid and become swollen, with their nuclei pushed to one side. When adipocytes cluster into groups, they become a tissue known as adipose tissue found under the skin, behind the eyes, around kidneys and abdominal cavity.
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Transient cell
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Do not have a permanent residence in the tissue but move in and out of it as needed. Transient cells generally are involved in the repair and protection of the tissue. Ex: White blood cells |
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Types of C.T
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All C.T is made up of - Ground Substance - Cells - Fibers C.T is divided into 2 broad categories - C.T Proper - Specialized C.T Mix and Match |
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C.T Proper
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The largest classification and contains every subtype of C.T except bone, catilage, and blood. The two subclasses of C.T are - Loose C.T - Dense C.T |
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Loose C.T
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Includes - Areolar tissue - Adipose tissue - Reticular tissue |
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Dense C.T
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Includes - Dense regular tissue - Dense irregular tissue - Elastic tissue |
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Loose C.T (Areolar tissue) |
A tangle of randomly placed fibers and cells suspended in a thick ground substance. The predominant cell is the fibroblast that manufactures the elastic, reticular and collagenous fibers found throughout the tissue. Areolar is most commonly tissue found everywhere in the body. Acts as packing material for support and cushion every organ. Ex: Knects skin to muscle, envelopes blood vessels, nerves and lymph nodes; present in all mucous membranes.
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Loose C.T (Adipose Tissue) aka Fat |
It is areolar tissue in which adipocytes or fat cells predominate. It is found beneath the skin, between muscles, behind eyeballs, surface of heart, joints, bone marrow, abdomen. They are highly vascular and store energy for animals. It acts as a thermal insulator under the skin preventing heat loss from body and acts as a shock absorber around organs.
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Loose C.T (Adipose Tissue Types) |
- White Adipose Tissue - Brown Adipose Tissue |
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White Adipose Tissue
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Found throughout the body, particulalry in deep layers of the skin. Stores energy and calories
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Brown Adipose Tissue
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Found in newborn animals and animals that hibernate during the winter. Highly specialized form of adipose tissue and plays an important part in temp. regulation because it is a site of heat production. Lots of mitochondria and more vascular than white fat.
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Loose C.T (Reticular Tissue) |
Composed of a complex, 3 dimensional network of thin reticular fibers. Resembles areolar C.T in that it contains loosely fibers and many fibroblasts in a ground substance. However, it contains only 1 fiber: reticular fiber. It constitutes the framework of liver, spleen, lymph nodes and bone marrow called Stroma.
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Dense C.T
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Characterized by densely packed arrangement of collagen fibers. Little room is available for ground substance and cells therefore, there is smaller quantities than in loose C.T. Fibroblasts are present where they produce fibers and ground substance.
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Dense C.T (3 major types) |
- Dense Regular Tissue
- Dense Irregular Tissue - Elastic Tissue |
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Dense Regular C.T
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Composed of tightly packed, parallel collagen fibers. Fibers lie in the direction of the force that is exerted on them giving them tremendous tensile strength, but only in one direction. It is avascular, thereby very slow to heal bcus nutrients and molecules have difficulty reaching the damaged tissue. Fibroblasts form rows along the crowded fibers and devote most of their energy to manufacture fibers and lil ground substance is produced. Ex: Tendons, Ligaments, Sheets of fascia
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Tendon |
Dense connective tissue that attaches muscle to bone |
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Ligaments |
Dense connective tissue that holds bones together at joints. Ligaments can stretch more than tendons because of the larger number of elastic fibers contained within them. Ex: Neck of Horses |
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Sheets of fascia |
Dense connective tissue is found in fascial sheets that cover muscles. These sheets are stacked into layers, one on top of another, buut the direction of the fibers in one fascial layer may be different from the direction of the fibers in another layer. This helps create an overall structure of fascia that can withstand forces from more than one direction. |
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Dense Irregular C.T |
Composed of collagen fibers that are arranged in thicker bundles than those found in dense regular C.T. The fibers are interwoven randomly to form a single sheet that withstand forces from diff. directions. Located in: dermis of the skin, fibrous covering of organs such as kidneys, testes, liver and spleen. Also forms the tough capsule of joints |
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Elastic C.T |
Primarily composed of yellow elastic fibers, rather than collagen fibers. It is found in a few regions of the body Ex: spaces between vertebrae in backbone. In regions of body that require stretching Ex: wall of arteries, stomach, lg airways, bladder, and heart. These fibers may be arranged in parallel or in interwoven patterns w/ fibroblasts and collagen fibers interspersed. |
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Specialized C.T |
- Cartilage -Bone - Blood |
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Specialized C.T |
3 types of Cartilage that vary from one another on the basis of the type of fiber found in the matrix are: - Hyaline Cartilage - Elastic Cartilage - Fibrocartilage |
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Cartilage aka Gristle |
More rigid than dense C.T but more flexible than bone. Found in joints to help prevent sensitive layers of bone rubbing against one another. Does not contain nerves, and is found in ears, nose, vocal cords and a vital framework on which bone is formed in growing animals. Composed of cells and matrix. The cells, Chondrocytes live in lacunae and the ground substance of matrix is a firm gel. Contains Lg amount of tissue fluid where it transports nutrients to cells. Collagen & elastic fibers found in matrix. It is avascular, thus is slow to heal |
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Hyaline Cartilage |
Most common type of cartilage found in body and composed of closely packed collagen fibers that make it tough, but more flexible than bone. Most rigid and is enclosed within perichondrium. It is found in articular cartilage at the end of long bones in joints & knects ribs to sternum. Forms supportive rings in trachea and composes embryonic skeleton. Found in the growth plate of growing animals (long bones) where it supports continues bone development and extension of length of bone |
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Elastic Cartilage |
Contains many elastic fibers which form dense, branching bundles. These fibers give elastic cartilage tremendous flexibility so that it can withstand repeated bending. It is found in epiglottis of the larnyx, and in external ears of animals. |
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Fibrocartilage |
Usually is found merged with hyaline cartilage and dense C.T. Contains thick bundles of collagen fibers, like hyaline cartilage, but it has fewer perichondrium. It is designed to take compression and is found in spaces between vertebrae of spine, between bones in pelvis and in knee joint. |
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Bone |
Hardest and most rigid type of C.T. Its specialized matrix is a combination of organic collagen fibers and inorganic calcium salts. It is well vascularized |
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Blood |
Red fluid that passes through vessels and that carries nutrients molecules and gases throughout the body is the most atypical C.T. The liquid is called plasma and constitutes the matrix. Fibrous components of the matrix is an array of protein molecules suspended in solution. Cells are erythrocytes (red blood cells), leukocytes (white blood cells), thrombocytes = platelets. |
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Functions of Bones |
- provide support to stand erect - protection to organs (soft, delicate tissues) - leverage (Strength) - Storage for calcium - blood cell formation = hematopoiesis |
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Bone characteristics |
2nd hardest natural substance in the body. Bone is composed of a sparse population of cells embedded in a hard matrix. As they create areas of bone, the osteoblasts become trapped in a spaces called lacunae (small holes). |
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Osteoblasts |
Cells that produce bone. They secret the matrix of bone and then supply the minerals necessary to harden it |
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Ossification |
When osteoblasts harden the matrix through a process called ossification. When ossification takes place, the matrix is infiltrated with calcium and phosphate. |
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Osteocytes |
Once osteoblasts are surrounded by bone, they get a new identity called osteocytes or bone cells. Osteocytes live their days in their lacunae. Their only contact with each other or with their blood supply is through threadlike, cellular processes in tiny channels through the bone called canaliculi. Osteocytes can convert back to osteocytes |
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Bone Structure |
Two main types - cancellous bone - compact bone |
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Cancellous Bone aka Spongy Bone |
Looks like sponge and consists of tiny spicules of bone that appear randomly arranged with lots of spaces between them. This helps reduce the weight of the bone, without reducing their strength. The organization of cancellous bone appear random, but they are actually arranged to stand up to forces to the bone. |
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Compact bone |
Very heavy, dense and strong. It makes up the shaft of long bones and outside layer of all bones. Composed of tiny, tightly compacted cylnders of bone called Harversian systems. These systems run lengthwise and consists of cylinders. |
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Harversian Canal |
Contains blood vessels, lymph vessels, and nerves that supply the osteocytes. The osteocytes are located at the junctions between the layers of bone that make up each harversian system. Tiny channels through bone, called canaliculi allow osteocytes to contact each other and exchange nutrients and wastes. |
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Periosteum |
Except for their articular or joint surfaces, the outer surfaces of bones are covered by a membrane called periosteum. The outer layer is composed of fibrous tissue, and its inner layer contains bone forming cells (Osteoblasts) |
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Endosteum |
Membrane that lines the hollow interior surface of bones, which also contains osteoblasts. |
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Bone Cells |
- Osteoblasts - Osteocytes - Osteoclasts |
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Osteoclasts |
Eat away bone. They are necessary for remodeling or removing bone where it is not needed and osteoblasts form new bone where it is needed. They also withdraw calcium from the bones when it is needed to raise calcium level in the blood. |
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Blood Supply to Bone |
Blood supply to bones comes from tiny blood vessels that penetrate in from the periosteum. Vessels pass through tiny channels in the bone matrix called Volkmanns canals. |
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Volkmanns Canals |
They come in at right angles to the long axis of the bone and at right angles to the harversian canals. The blood vessels in volkmanns canals join with the blood vessels in the harversian canals to bring nutrition to the osteocytes. |
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Nutrient Foramina |
Large blood vessels, along with lymph vessels and nerves, also enter many large bones, especially long bones through channels called nutrient foramina. These large vessels carry blood in and out of the bone marrow. May resemble fracture of bone cortex in xray |
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Bone Formation |
Formed in the body by one of two mechanisms: 1) endochondral (Cartilage bone formation) 2) Intramembranous (Membrane bone formation) |
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Endochondral bone formation |
The body first creates a cartilage template that is subsequently replaced by bone. Most bones start as cartilage in the fetus. These are prototypes of the bones that will replace them. In long bones such as the femur or thigh bone, bone begins developing in the diaphysis aka (Primary growth center). Cartilage is removed gradually as bone is created & growth center expands. Secondary growth centers develop in the epiphyses of bone. |
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Epiphyseal plates aka growth plates |
Only 2 areas of a long bone remain as cartilage when an animal is born: located between diaphysis of the bone and the ends, or epiphyses of the bone. They are the sites where the creation of new bone allows the long bones to lengthen as animals grow. |
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Epiphyseal plates |
In each growth plate, cartilage cells create new cartilage on the outside or epiphyseal surface of the plate, and osteoblasts replace the cartilage on the inside or diaphyseal surface of the plate with bone. When bone has matured, epiphyseal plates ossify. |
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Intramembranous bone formation |
Occurs only in certain skull bones. Bone forms in the fibrous tissue membrane that cover the brain in the developing fetus. |
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Long Bones |
Longer than they are wide. Bone of the limbs are long bones, femur and thigh bone. They have a proximal and distal epiphysis, which consist of cancellous bone covered by a thin layer of compact bone. The main part of a long bone is the diaphysis which is composed of strong compact bone. |
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Short Bones |
Shaped like small cubes or marshmallows. Consists of a core of spongy bone covered by a thin layer of compact bone. Ex: Carpal and Tarsal bones |
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Flat bones |
Thin and flat. Their structure is like a cancellous bone sandwich that consists of two thin plates of compact bone separated by a layer of cancellous bone. Ex: skull bones, shoulder blades, pelvic bones, scapulae |
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Irregular Bones |
Miscellaneous category. They have a characteristic of more than one of the other categories or they have a truly irregular shape. Ex: vertebrae, some skull bones, sesamoid bones, present in some tendons, knee cap. |
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Extracellular Matrix |
The mixture of fiber and ground substance |
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Calcitonin |
when calcium in blood begins to rise too high, the hormone calcitonin is secreted by the thyroid glands. This encourages calcium to be deposited in the bones by osteoblasts, inhibits bone reabsoption by osteoclasts and increases the amount of calcium excreted by the kidneys. These help to decrease the amount of calcium in blood |
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Parathyroid hormone |
When the level of calcium in the blood drop too low, parathyroid hormone is released from the parathyroid glands. This hormone inhibits calcium deposition in bones by osteoblasts, encourages osteoclasts to withdraw calcium from bones and causes calcium to be retained by kidneys. These serve to increase the amount of calcium in blood. |
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Bone Marrow |
Fills the spaces within bones. This includes the spaces between the spicules of cancellous bone and the large spaces within the diaphyses of long bones. There are 2 types of bone marrow - red bone marrow - yellow bone marrow |
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Red Bone Marrow |
It is hematopoietic tissue. It forms blood cells and makes up the majority of the bone marrow of young animals and only a small portion in older animals. |
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Yellow Bone Marrow |
Made up of adipose tissue (fat). It is most common in adult animals and does not produce blood cells, but it can revert back to red bone marrow if needed. |
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Articular surface |
are joint surfaces: smooth areas of compact bone where bones come in contact with each other to form joints. Each articular surface is covered by a smooth, thin layer of hyaline cartilage called articular cartilage. |
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Processes |
include all the lumps, bumps, and other projections on a bone. Soft parts of bones is where joints connect. Rough, irregular surfaces are sites where muscles or tendons attach. |
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Foramen |
A hole in a bone where usually something important such as a nerve or blood vessel passes through a foramen into a bone. |
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Fossa |
Depressed or sunken area on the surface of a bone. Usually they are occupied by muscles or tendons. |
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Vertebrae |
Consists of a body, arch and a group of processes and protects the spinal cord (nerves) |
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Intervertebral disk |
Bodies of adjacent vertebrae are separated by intervertebral disks made out of fibrocartilage |
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Ribs |
Each rib actually has two parts: a dorsal part made of bone, and a ventral part made of cartilage |
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Thoraic Limb |
Starts with the scapula and goes down to - Humerus - Ulna & Radius - Carpal - Metacarpal - Phalanges |
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Pelvic Limb |
Starts with the pelvis and works its way down to - Femur - Tibia & Fibula - Tarsal - Metatarsal - Phalanges |
