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585 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Greatest single cost of animal agriculture is....
Feed
Food costs for dairy cows is how much of total cost?
50%
Food costs for swine and poultry is how much of total cost?
70%
Six general classes of nutrients are?
Water, Carbohydrates, Protein, Lipids, Vitamins, Minerals
The main nutrient required by animals is....?
Water
How many essential amino acids are there?
10-11
How man essential fatty acids are there?
2-3
How many vitamins are there? How many are fat soluble? Water soluble?
13 in total. 4 fat soluble, 9 water soluble
How many minerals are there? How many are macro? Trace elements?
16 in total. 7 macro, 9 trace elements
What amino acid do cats require?
Taurine
What is the total number of nutrients required by the animal?
42-44
The sum of all processes by which an animal takes in and utilizes food is known as?
Nutrition
What is the name for a series of processes within the alimentary canal in which feeds are broken down in particle size and made soluble for absorption
Digestion
Which process involves the passage of digested nutrients from the GIT into the blood, where they are distributed?
Absorption
The sum of all biochemical reactions that nutrients undergo to furnish energy and to build new tissue is known as...?
Metabolism
Food is....
...an edible material that provides nutrients
Feed is...
...a food item that animals eat
Feedstuffs are...
...materials used as feed
Diet is...
...a mixture of feedstuffs used to supply nutrients to an animal.
Gastrointestinal tract (GIT) is...
...the region of the alimentary canal that runs from the stomach to the colon
What class of animal eats only plants? An example?
Herbivore, Horse
What class of animal eats both plants and meat? An example?
Omnivore, Pig
What class of animal eats only meat? An example?
Carnivore, Cat
A cow rests for ... hours per day, sleeps for ... hours per day, and chews for ... hours per day.
8, 8, 8
The mouth consits of?
Tounge, teeth and lips
What are 3 uses of the mouth?
Grazing, prehension of food and chewing
The salivary glands produce?
Saliva
What are 4 uses of saliva?
1) Helps food form a bolus for swallowing. 2) Keeps mouth moist and begins to solubilize food. 3) Adds digestive enzymes. 4) In ruminants, it aids in buffering pH
What species of animals don't chew? Why?
Avians, they don't produce much saliva
How many litres per day of saliva does a sheep produce? A cow?
10L/d in sheep, 150L/d in cattle
The stomach is divided into sections based on?
Types of glands present
How many sections of the stomach are there in non ruminants?
3
What are the names of the regions of the stomach, and what glands do they contain?
Cardiac region (mucus glands), Peptic gland region (enzymes (pesin) & HCL), Pyloric region (mucus)
What is the rough pH of the stomach?
pH 2
In what part of the small intestine are the digestive secretions of pancreatic juice and bile secretions added?
Duodenum
Where in the small intestine does most absorption occur?
Jejunum
What is the third region of the small intestine? (Duodnem and Jejunum being the other two)
Ileum
The three regions of the large intestine are?
Cecum, colon and rectum
The large intestine is the primary region for...
...water absorption and fermentation by gut bacteria
There is little .... or .... ..... from the large intestine
enzyme, hormone secretion
What product of bacterial fermentation is absorbed in the large intestine?
Volatile Fatty Acids
What is coprophagy?
The ability to redigest unabsorbed nutrients and to acquire the bacterially-synthesised vitamins
What animals eat their own soft faeces?
Baby Gorillas and rabbits
Fibre is digested in the .... ...... not in the ......
Large intestine, stomach
In rumiants, the stomach has how many compartments?
4
What are the 4 compartments of the ruminant stomach?
Rumen, Reticulum, Omasum and abomasum
What are the key features of the rumen?
Relatively stable pH (5-7), constant nutrient supply, anaerobic, constant temperature (38 degrees celcius), continous end product removal, continous mixing.
The layers of the rumen from top to bottom are?
Gas, Fibre mat, intermediate zone, liquid zone
What neutralises pH changes in the rumen?
Saliva
How much of a ruminant's energy comes from VFA's?
70-80%
What 3 features do avians have to make up for their lack of teeth?
Crop, pro-ventriculus and gizzard
Proximate analysis is used for?
Food and feed labels, and for quality control. Also used to classify feedstuffs
Feeds classified as roughages or forages have how much crude fibre in the dry state?
Avergage of more than 18%
Products containing more than 20% crude protein are classified as?

Less than 20% CP?
Protein supplements

Energy feed
NDF stands for?
Neutral Detergent fibre (e.g. hemicellulose, cellulose and liginin)
ADF stands for?
Acid detergent fibres (e.g. cellulose and liginin)
Detergent fibre analysis analyses?
Plant components of feedstuffs, best method to determin quality
High lignin content in roughage is considered?
Bad
Why is a high lignin content considered bad?
Is higher in less digestible NDF and lower in more digestible ADF
The fat soluble vitamins are?
A, D,E & K
Organic molecules which the body often cannot make itself in sufficient amounts, but which can be made by bacteria or plants are known as?
Vitamins
Vitamins are needed in ... amounts
small
Fat soluble vitamins are excreted via?
Bile ---> Faeces
A cause of deficiency of fat soluble vitamins is?
Problems with absorption
General features of fat soluble vitamins are?
Lipid soluble, long chain hydrocarbons with ring structures
Fat soluble vitamins are ..... ....., but have no known ..... ......
fairly specific, enzymatic function
Precursor of Vitamin A is? Where is found?
Beta Carotene, found in plants (e.g. carrots)
Beta carotene is high in what kind of hay? What causes it to be lost?
Green legume hay, lost through bleaching or over heating
All forms of Vitamin A are excreted in?
Bile
Vitamin is is absorbed through ... ...... and taken to the ..... or other tissues via .....
Gut cylomicron, liver, blood
Vitamin A is stored in the?
Liver
Vitamin A is transported in the blood by ..... or can be transported by ....?
RBP (retinol binding protein), lipoproteins
Vitamin A + opsin ----> ..... which is needed for .....
Rhodopsin (Visual purple),needed for night vision
What form of Vitamin A is needed for healthy epithelial cells?
Retin A
Vitamin A is especially need for? What happens with a deficiency?
Remodeling mucous membranes in the GIT, mammary glands, in the mouth etc. When deficiency occurs, these areas become keratinized.
The main functions of Vitamin A are?
1) Vision 2) Maintainance of epithelial cells 3) Glycoprotein synthesis 4) Normal bone growth and remodeling 5) Cellular differentiation (via retinoic acid receptors)
What are the 3 mains signs of Vitamin A deficiency?
1) Night blindness 2) Xeropthalmia 3) Ataxia
What is Xeropthalmia?
Extensive keratinization around eyes and other epithelia and severe dryness and opacity of the cornea
Vitamin A is routinely added to .... ..... feeds, but ..... on pasture do not need it
Non Ruminants, Ruminants
Toxicity levels are.... It can aslo be .....
500,000-1,000,000 IU/Kg diet, Tetratogenic (causing birth defects)
Animals in sunlight...
....rarely need dietary Vitamin D
Mammals use both the .... and .... forms, whereas birds use .... only
D2, D3, D3
Vitamin D absorption is dependent on .... in the diet, as there are no ...... ....... across the gut
Fat, Specific carriers
The active form of Vitamin D is? How does it behave in cells?
1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol (DHCC), Behaves like a steroid hormone
Functions of DHCC?
Increase serum Ca and affect P reabsorption
What structures does DHCC act on?
Blood, bone, kidney, gut and immune cells
What happens in the case of low serum Ca?
Increase in PTH (Parathyroid Hormone) secretion, Increased bone resorption and Ca retention by Kidney, increase in 1-hydroxylase activity in the kidney --> more 1,25diOH CC, which leads to increased bone resorption and increased Ca absorption in the gut.
What are the diseases caused by Vitamin D deficiency?
Rickets or Osteomalacia (softening of bones due to defective bone mineralization)
Toxicity levels of Vitamin D are? Symptoms of toxicity?
Toxic at 300,000-1,000,000 IU/kg (species differences) Toxicity leads to calcification of soft tissue (e.g. heart and kidney) and excessive bone reabsorption
The most common form of Vitamin E is?
Alpha-tocopherol (Gamma and Beta forms of tocopherol are also available, but are less potent)
For Vitamin E to be absorbed, .... is required in the diet
Lipid
Vitamin E is excreted in?
Bile
Vitamin E is found in all .... ..... but .... ...... ......
Cell membranes, No true storage
Vitamin E has .... placental transfer, especially in the .... and .....
Poor, Lamb, Calf
Funtion of Vitamin E is?
Biological anti-oxidant (protects membranes from oxidative damage: its primary action is to trap peroxy radicals in cellular membranes)
.... destroys peroxides, whereas ..... ... prevents their formation
Selinium (Se), Vitamin E
The signs of Vitamin E deficieny are?
1) Encephalomalacia (mammals)/ Exudative diathesis (chicks) 2) RBC haemolysis (all species) 3) Embryonic degeneration (all species) 4) Vitamin E/Se deficiency --> white muscle disease (in ruminants, skeletal and cardicac muscle affected) 5) Impaired fertility in both sexes
Non ruminants require ... of Vitamin E, whereas ruminants generally only require it when?
10 IU/Kg, During times of stress
For both ruminants and non ruminants, the anti-oxidant requirement ..... with ... .... diets
Increases, High fat
.Fresh legumes such as ... ..... and .... are good sources of Vitamin E, as are ..... ... and derivative foods.
Clover, Alfalfa, Vegetable oils
The forms of Vitamin K are? Where are they found?
K1 (Plants), K2 (bacteria) K3 (synthetic form)
For Vitamin K, ... is needed in the diet as there are no carriers. There is also no .....
Fat, storage
What organ may modify the side chain to form K2?
The liver
Vitamin K is required for the .... to synthesis four of the essential proteins required for .... .... formation
Liver, Blood clots (the factors are II, VII, IX, X)
Deficiency signs of Vitamin K are? Early sign of this deficiency is?
Haemorages (often small, can be fatal). Early sign is increased clotting time
What situations could casue Vitamin K deficiency?
1) Animals in confined housing 2) From sweet clover poisoning, which occursfrom eating weather damaged clover which can contain dicomarol (a naturally occuring Vitamin K anatagonist) 3) Warfarin (rat poison)
NR requirements for Vitamin K are ... because Gut microbes make it.
Low (0.53mg/kg)
Vitamin K requirements may be higher in ..... or ..... with antibiotic feeding because of reduced .... .....
Swine or Poultry, Enteric Synthesis
Water soluble vitamins are...
....organic molecules that animals cannot synthesis, but plants and bacteria can
Sources of water soluble vitamins are?
Plants or bacteria
Functions of B vitamins are?
As co-enzymes
As water soluble vitamins are not stored in the body, ..... ...... is unlikely
Acute toxicity
Water soluble vitamins are required in ..... ....., and are generally excreted in ....
Small amounts, Urine
In general, it is not the .... form of Vitamin B that serves as the coenzyme, but a .......
Simple, Metabolite
B vitamins are excreted in .... and circulated in the blood in ..... .....
Urine, simple form
The only B Vitamin which is stored is ......, for others, all excess uptake is excreted by the .....
Vitamin B12, Kidneys
Vitamin (B1) is also known as? Where is it absorbed?
Thiamin, absorbed in the gut
Thiamin is converted to a co-enzyme where?
Liver
The coenzyme thiamin pyrophosphate is important for what processes?
Carbohydrate and fat metabolism
Signs of Thiamin deficiency are?
Polyneuritis, poor appetite, hyper-irritability
Polyneuritis is also known as?
Beri-Beri
Sources of Thiamin are?
Wholegrain (in seed coat of most grains), germ meal, forages, milk
Nutrient requirements of Thiamin in NR are? Ruminants?
Non-Ruminants 1-2mg/day, non ruminants-no dietary need
Riboflavin is ..... ..... but destroyed by .....
Heat stable, light
Riboflavin is ...... ......, and found in ...... associated with .... ......
easily absorbed, binding protein
Functions of riboflavin are??
Coenzymes FAD and FMN (cofactors for dehydrogenases and oxidases)
Riboflavin is required for?
Energy metabolism & Electron transport
How many macroelements are there?
7
Macroelements account for x % of minerals in the body.
98%
6 general functions of macroelements
1. Structure
2. Energy metabolism
3. Homeostasis
4. Muscle & nerve
5. Micronutrient functions (cofactors)
6. Productive functions (e.g. Ca in eggshells)
Why are they called macroelements?
1. % level in diet
2. mg % level in blood
3. most abudant elements of body
Where is the majority of Ca & P found in the body?
99% of Ca & 75-80% of P in bone
Bone composition: % apatite & % organic material
50% apatite
50% organic
What are the 7 macrolements?
Ca, P
Na, Cl, K
Mg
S
Ca absorption is depenedent upon?
Vit D
Ca absorption occurs in?
Small intestine (active) and lower gut (passive)
Homeostasis of Ca is regulated at the level of
ionic Ca in blood
If serum Ca increases, what hormone is released and what is its action?
Calcitonin sends Ca to the bone.
If serum Ca decreases, which hormone is released and what is its action?
PTH
1. enhances Ca release from bone
2. formation of 1,25 DHCC
3. kidneys retain Ca
4. kidneys excrete P
Ca deficiency signs? (5)
1. poor grown
2. tetany (think milk fever)
3. bone dz
4. repro failure
5. impaired production
Chronic dietary excess of Ca can cause? (4)
1. decreased fat absorption (formation of Ca soaps in GIT)
2. excess calcification of bone & soft tissues (calcinosis)
3. suppressed parathyroid function (don't need PTH)
4. trace elements aren't absorbed
Ca/P ratio in diet
2:1
2 major diseases associated w/ Ca & P
Rickets (young)
Osteomalacia (adults)
What is rickets and osteomalacia?
bones aren't adequately calcified
What is nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism?
parathyroid tries to compensate for chronic low levels of Ca in diet
What is nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism called in horses?
Bran disease = swollen nose (monkeys get weird facial bones from it)
Another name for milk fever?
Parturient paresis (associated w/ fresh cows, i.e. just gave birth)
How do you treat milk fever?
1. IV calcium gluconate
2. udder inflation (to slow Ca uptake by udder)
How would a farmer prevent milk fever? (4)
1. Feed anionic salt
2. inject vit D3 a few days before calving
3. feed low Ca diet during dry period (few weeks before she calves)
4. Feed NH4Cl in late pregnancy (to enhance Ca absorption)
Ca requirements
NR = 0.4-3.5% (very high in chickens, need Ca for eggshells)
R = 0.15 - 0.6%
Is P absorption dependent on Ca absorption?
No, their absorption is independent of each other, even tho they both require Vit D
Sources of dietary P (3)
1. plants (have phytate, which isn't readily available to NR)
2. meat & bonemeal
3. supplements
P deficiency signs (3)
1. Rickets
2. poor growth
3. PICA (aka depraved appetite.. eating wood etc)
P requirements
NR = 0.3 - 0.6%
R = 0.15 - 0.5%
What macroelements are the three electrolytes?
Na, Cl, K
Where are the electrolytes found in relation to the cell?
Na & Cl = ECF (plasma)
K = intracellular
How are the electrolytes excreted?
urine
Dietary requirements of K, Na, Cl
K = 0.3-0.8
Na= 0.12-0.18
Cl= 0.13-0.15%
Electrolyte imbalances can cause (4)
1. poor growth
2. bad eggshells
3. poor cartilage growth
4. milk fever
Which macroelement is used as a laxative?
Mg (milk of magnesia...)
Major disease associated w/ Mg deficiency?
Grass tetany
What is grass tetany?
the beef cows get it on lush spring grass...

Walks stiffly, staggers, ends up w/ tetany. They get nervous because they can't move so they're breathing rapidly and not eating.
How do you treat grass tetany?
IV Ca or Mg gluconate
How can you prevent grass tetany?
1. spray the grass w/ Mg or apply Mg lime to soil.
2. feed them Mg
3. Plant legumes in pasture
Mg requirements
NR = 0.05%
R= 0.15-0.2 %
Does MgO taste good?
No, has to be mixed in w/ other minerals.
How is sulfur mainly absorbed?
as cys & met (sulfate can be absorbed too)
R metabolism of sulfur
rumen bugs can use dietary sulfate to make cys & met
NR metabolism of sulfur
sulfur aa are absorbed, sent to the tissues, and catabolized. Free sulfate is released & excreted in the urine.
Sulfur requirements
NR: same as for the S-aa
R: 0.18% (if fed corn silage, need to add Na2SO4 because it doesn't contain enough S)
Which two species are buffers important in?
laying hens & early lactation dairy cows
What are three buffers?
NaHCO3
MgO
CaCO3
Why are buffers beneficial for cows in early lactation? (3)
1. increases feed intake
2. increases milk fat
3. reduces stress
Why are buffers beneficial to laying hens?
Prevents thin eggshells due to hot weather.
What are the 2 functional groups of essential trace elements?
Insoluble cations
Soluble ions
Which 5 essential trace elements are insoluble cations?
Fe
Cu
Zn
Mn
Co
Which 4 essential trace elements are soluble ions?
Cr
Se
I
Mo
How are the insoluble cations excreted?
Into gut (insoluble, so they won't be in the urine)
How are the soluble ions excreted?
In the urine.
Are insoluble cations or soluble ions generally bound to a carrier protein?
Insoluble cations
Functions of Fe? (3)
1. catalytic in Hb, myoglobin, cytochromes
2. O transport
3. redox rxns
4. electron transport
How is iron lost from the body?
Blood loss.
How is iron carried in blood? In cells?
blood: transferrin
cells: ferritin
Fe deficiency? (3)
1. anemia
2. poor growth
3. repro problems
Fe requirements?
NR= 50-80
R= 25-40 mg/kg
How is copper excreted?
in bile
What is copper's main function?
cofactor (in oxidases)
Where is copper stored?
liver (especially in the fetus)
Copper deficiency signs?
1. anemia
2. CT defects
3. depigmentation/loss of coat color
Copper requirements?
NR= 2-6
R= 12 mg/kg
Copper toxicity is especially dangerous in which species?
Sheep (25-30 mg/kg can kill them)
Storage of copper in the liver is 10x higher than in what spp?
pigs or cows
Zinc absorption is dependent upon what?
metallothionine
Which three trace elements compete for absorption?
Zn, Cu, Cd
what is zinc's main function?
part of enzymes
(carboxypeptidase, carbonic anhydrase, transcription factors, DNA polymerase & ribonuclease)
Zn deficiency signs? (5)
1. severe growth reduction
2. skin lesions (perakeratosis)
3. poor repro, delayed puberty
4. bone lesions (~arthritis)
5. conjunctiva dz in cows
Zn requirements
NR= 10-50 mg/kg
R = 15-40 mg/kg
What substance in plants can "tie up" Zn?
phytate
Manganese metabolism:
complexes w/ proteins in portal blood.
Once in liver it can:
1. be secreted in bile
2. stored
3. complexed w/ transferrin for secretion
What is the major function of Mn?
cofactors involved in bone & CT
Mn deficiency (3)
1. skeletal problems (poultry)
2. ataxia
3. sterility
Mn requirements
NR = 2-55 mg/kg
R = 25
Cobalt's only known function?
component of B12
What species require cobalt and why?
ruminants--rumen bugs use it to make B12
Do NR require dietary cobalt?
No, they get B12 from their diet
Why do ruminants require dietary cobalt?
rumen bugs use it to make B12
Co requirements
R = 0.05-0.08 mg/kg
Co deficiency is a regional problem.
yeah, that was just a statement
Co/B12 functions (2)
1. propionate-->glucose (in liver)
2. normal RBC formation
Co deficiency signs (4)
1. R are anemic and therefore tired
2. rough hair coat
3. anestrous
4. poor growth
What is iodine used for?
to make thyroid hormones
How is excess iodine excreted?
urine
iodine deficiency diseases? (2)
1. Goiter (enlarged thyroid, it's trying to take up add'l I from blood)
2. Cretinism (retarded babies)
Iodine requirements
NR = 0.20 mg/kg
R = 0.10 mg/kg
Which form of Se is better absorbed? inorg or org?
Inorganic
What tissues does Se go to?
all
Toxic levels of Se can be excreted how?
via the lungs (it's volatile)
3 functions of Se
1. glutathione peroxidase, for antiox rxns
2. immunity (redox rxns)
Se deficiency (2)
1. poor growth
2. pancreatic degeneration (regardless of vit E conc)
3. membrane oxidation
Se requirements
R & NR = 0.1-0.3 mg/kg
Which Cr valence is absorbed best?
Cr +3
Cr deficiency signs (3)
1. reduced glucose tolerance
2. impaired energy metab
3. increased cholesterol
What are the only 2 spp where Cr deficiency has been observed (they're both dumb)
rat and human
what is a good source of Cr?
brewer's yeast
What is the organic form of Cr and why is it important?
GTF (glucose tolerance factor)

allows cells to respond to insulin (glucose uptake)
How is Cr excreted?
urine
What two enzymes is Mo a cofactor for?
1. Xanthine oxidase (for purine metab)
2. Sulfite oxidase (sulfite-->sulfate for S-aa metab)
Dietary requirement of Mo
1-2 ppm
Toxicity level of Mo?
30-50 ppm
3 ways to correct deficiences in trace elements
1. put minerals in diet (as a separate ration, often as a trace mineral premix)
2. add trace minerals to trace mineralized salt (TMS)
3. Co capsule in rumen--a slow release capsule
Why would you stick a Co capsule in the rumen?
Because the rumen bugs use Co to make B12
What are the 2 major energy storage forms in plants?
Starch and cellulose
CHO ratio?
1:2:1
How do 2 monosaccharides combine to form a disacch?
loss of an H2O
starch & glycogen have what kind of digestible bond?
alpha1-4 & alpha1-6
cellulose has what kind of bond?
beta1-4
example of a trisacch?
raffinose (G+F+Gal)
2 examples of polysacchs
Starch
Cellulose
Make-up of starch
70-80% amylopectin (alpha1-6)
20-30% amylose (alpha1-4)
Is amylose or amylopectin branched?
amylopectin
What enzymes are in the mouth?
sal amylase
What carb enzyme is in the stomach?
salivary amylase
What carb enzymes are in the small intestine?
pancreatic amylase
intestinal sucrase, lactase & maltase
In the newborn NR, what carbohydrates are not absorbed?
di ,tri or polysacchs
What are mechanisms for glucose & galactose transport in NR?
1. active transport of glucose & galactose in small intestine via Na-dependent glucose transporter SGLT1
2. passive transport of glucose by GLUT proteins in intestine
In NR, what is the majority of digested CHO?
glucose
In NR, where does the conversion of galactose --> F + G occur?
mucosal cell or hepatocyte
normal range of bld glucose in NR?
80-100 mg/dL
Glucose is used for? (3)
1. energy source
2. muscle glycogen
3. fat synthesis (if in excess)
Metabolic conditions after a meal
1. BG increases
2. Insulin increases
3. Glycogen synthesis (musc & liver)
4. Other cells use it for energy (glucose oxidation)
5. Fat synthesis (adipose tiss in mammals; liver in birds)
How long after a meal does the period of "glucose abundance" last?
1-2 hours
What are the sources of glucose during fasting? (3)
1. Glycogenolysis (glucagon is responsible)
2. Lipolysis & GNG (glucagon & epi)
3. Proteolysis
Lipolysis:
TAG --> glycerol + 3 free FAs
(glycerol --> GNG = 3C)
(FAs = energy = 54C)
Ketogenic amino acids are a good source of
energy
Ketogenic amino acids result in the formation of:
3 ketone bodies
1. acetone
2. acetoacetic acid
3. beta-hydroxybutric acid
Glucogenic aa result n the production of
glucose (via GNG)
(they give off NH2)
What are the complex CHO in the ruminant diet? (7)
1. sugars
2. starches
3. fructosans (NSC)
4. cellulose
5. pectins
6. hemicellulose
7. lignin (SC)
What does NSC & SC stand for?
non-structural carbs (fructosans) & structural carbs (lignin)
What is the main absorbed end production of CHO fermentaiton in the rumen?
VFAs
Is glucose absorbed in the rumen?
very little
How is the cellular requirement for glucose obtained in the ruminant if they dont' absorb much glucose?
continuous GNG in the liver
BG in ruminants?
40-60 mg/dL
Why is their reduced fluctuation of BG in ruminants? (4)
1. eat constantly (graze)
2. continuous VFA production
3. continuous digesta flow
4. continuous GNG
What are the 2 sites of GNG?
Liver and kidney.
How many carbons in acetate?
2
Acetate metabolism:
acetate in rumen --> rumen wall --> portal vein --> liver --> general circulation
What are acetate's two uses?
1. energy source
2. substrate for FA synthesis
Do ruminants have salivary amylase?
no
What enzyme do R use to digest strach that bypasses rumen fermentation?
pancreatic amylase
Why does a high fiber diet lead to a fat cow?
because the more fiber you have the more acetate is produced
how many carbons in propionate?
3
Thamin is also known as ??
Vitamin B1
Riboflavin is also known as ??
Vitamin B2
Niacin is also known as ??
Vitamin B3, Nicotoamide, nicotinic acid
Deficiency signs of riboflavin are?
1) Dermatitis and skin lesions, 2) Eye lesions and cataracts 3) Degeneration of nerves and leg paralysis 4) Reduced growth rate
Sources of riboflavin are?
Milk, green forages, fermentation products
Toxicity of riboflavin is ??
Very unlikely
Niacin is formed from ...., is ..... and ..... stable
Tryptophan, heat, light
Functions of riboflavin are?
Forms the co-enzyme NAD and NADP (cofactors for dehydrogenases, important for vitamin E metabolism)
Deficiency signs of riboflavin are?
Unhealthy skin and mucous membranes, Pellegra (humans), Black tounge (dogs), poor growth, dermatitis, perosis (chick)
What are the sources of Niacin?
Is widely distributed in many foods, no food is particularly rich in it
What is the fate of most (85%) of propionate in the rumen?
--> liver --> glucose in general circulation
Is there a lot of propionate in blood?
no
What happens to the other 15% of propionate from the rumen?
It's converted into lactate then sent to the liver to make glucose for the general circulation
Butyrate has how many carbons?
4
What happens to 25% of the butyrate in the rumen?
--> portal vein --> liver to make ketones
What happens to most of the butyrate in the rumen (75%)?
converted to beta-HBA and sent to the liver to make more ketones
What are the 3 ketones
beta-HBA
acetone
acetoacetic acid
How much butyric acid ends up in the general circulation?
not much
What are ketones used as?
1. energy source
2. substrate for fat synthesis
If too many ketone bodies are in the blood, what is that called?
Ketosis
What are 5 common signs in ketosis of dairy cows?
1. hypoglycemia
2. ketonuria
3. loss of appetite
4. lethargy
5. depressed milk production
When and why is ketosis a problem in dairy cows?
In early lactation during active lipolysis.
What are the 2 sources of ketone bodies?
Rumen wall (beta-HBA) & the liver (bHBA, acetone, acetoacetic acid)
"Fire, fuel & oxidation slide" says what about CHO Metab in R?
high fiber diet --> vfa absorption --> GNG --> glucose, acetate, & bHBA in blood
"Fire, fuel & oxidation slide" says what about CHO metab in N?
High soluble-CHO diet --> glucose absorption --> glucose in the blood
Where do the H+ ions from TCA cycle go?
to ETC for ox phos --> ATP
What is the first stage of respiration?
mobilization of acetyl-CoA
What 3 processes form ketogenic aa's?
1. glycolysis
2. fat mobilization (& beta-ox)
3. proteolysis
What is the 3rd stage of respiration?
ET & ox phos
What is the final electron acceptor?
O2
What 3 poisons stop the ET chain?
1. CO
2. H2S
3. Cyanide
Yield of ATP per electron pair?
2-3 depending upon where they enter the pathway
What are the 3 stages of respiration?
1. mobilization of acetyl CoA
2. TCA cycle --> H+ ions
3. ETC & ox phos
What does glycolysis (EM pway) begin with?
phosphorylation rxn (hexokinase)
What is the most common substrate to contribute carbon to gylcolysis?
glucose
Glycolysis results in the formation of what triose compounds?
glucose --> pyruvate --> lactate
Net yield of x ATP for each glucose oxidized
2 ATP
Where does TCA occur?
mitochondrion
TCA cycle requires input of acetyl-CoA from 2 sources
1. activation of acetate from blood
2. pyruvate from glycolysis
What can be converted to acetyl-CoA for oxidation in the TCA cycle?
bHBA
Net input into TCA
acetyl-CoA
net output of TCA
2 CO2
GTP
4 pairs of H+
TCA = citric acid (6C) -->
OAA (4C)
net yield of energy per glucose oxidized?
36 ATP
What are the major precursors for GNG? (4)
1. Propionate
2. Lactate
3. Glucogenic aa
4. Glycerol
Are FA's a precursor for GNG?
no
What is the rate-limiting enzyme in GNG?
PEP-CK (PEP carboxykinase)
What are the C-skeletons of glucogenic aa's converted to?
Lactate or alpha-ketoglutarate (--> glucose)
Primary energy substrate absorbed from the GIT in NR & R?
NR = glucose
R = VFAs
Primary substrate for fat synthesis in NR & R?
NR = glucose
R = acetate
Niacin availabilty is poor in?
Corn, Milo and Wheat (Corn is also lowin tryptophan, a niacin precursor)
Pyridoxine is also known as ??
Vitamin B6
Pyridoxine diffuses from ... ..... into .....
Gut lumen, entrocytes
The function of pyridoxine is?
Forms coenzyme pyridoxal-phosphate, which is involved in transamination and deamination reactions
Sources of pyridoxine are?
Most feeds are good sources, especially good sources are meat, liver and wholegrains
Deficiency signs of pyridoxine are?
1) Dermatitis 2) Convulsions 3) Anemia 4) Poor Growth 5) Skeletal defects
Toxicity of pyridoxine is ??
Unlikely
Folic acid is synthesised ..... by ....
entrically, bacteria
Functions of folate are?
As a coenzyme needed for synthesis of purines, pyrimidines, serine & creatine
Deficiency signs of folate are?
Macrocytic anemia, poor immunity, spinal defects
Extent of glucose absorption from gut in NR & R?
NR = extensive
R = little
Cellular demand for glucose in NR & R?
high for both
Importance of GNG precursors in NR & R?
NR = important (glycerol, aa)
R = VERY important (propionate, glycerol, aa)
Ketone production in NR & R?
NR = always abnormal, always ketosis
R = ketosis if EXCESSIVE
Are CHOs expensive?
no, cheap
What are the key metabolic pathways for glucose oxidation? (3)
1. glycolysis
2. TCA cycle
3. ET/Ox phos
What are the CROSSROADS in metabolic pways? (4)
1. glucose
2. glucose-6-P
3. acetate
4. acetyl-CoA
Levels of folate are .... to ..... in most feeds
fair, good
Requirements of folate increase with high levels of ??
Dietary proteins
Vitamin B12 is also known as ??
Cyanocobalamin
Vitamin B12 requires .... .... ... for absorption into the ....
Stomach intrinsic factor, ileum.
When Vitamin B12 is transported in blood it is bound to ??
Transcobalmin
Functions of Vit B12 are?
Methyl group and propionate metabolism in gluconeogenisis
Deficiency signs of Vit B12 are?
1) Macrocytic anaemia 2) Neurological problems 3) Poor growth 4) Poor appetite
Good sources of Vit B12 are?
Fermentation products or animal products (not found in plants)
Need for Vit B12 is increased in diets which are high in ??
Propionate or protein
Toxicity of Vit B12 is ??
Not a concern
Pantothenic acid is .... ....., and circulates as .....
Readily absorbed, CoA
Pantothenic acid is supplemented as??
A Calcium salt
Functions of Pantothenic acid are?
Part of coenzyme A (involved in fat and energy metabolism etc.)
Deficiency signs of Pantothenic acid are?
1) Dermatitis 2) Nerve problmes (goose stepping in swine) 3) Depressed growth 4) Fatty liver
Pantothenic acid is .... ..... in feed, but low in .... and some other seed grains
Widely distributed, Corn
Functions of Biotin are?
Coenzyme for CHO and fat metabolism, used for "CO2 fixation", FA synthesis, Gluconogenesis, Deamination
Deficiency signs of biotin are?
1) Dermatitis & skin lesions 2) Loss of hair 3) Perosis (chick)
Dietary sources of biotin are?
It is widely distributed (unavailable in Milo and Wheat) (avidin in raw eggs binds to biotin and makes it unavailable)
Ascorbic acid is also known as??
Vitamin C
Functions of Vit C are?
Connective tissue metabolism, Fe absorption, Fe and Cu metabolism, essential in the formation of collagen
Define lipids
organic
insoluble in water
soluble in ether, chloroform, or benzene
5 classes of lipids
fats
oils
sterols
waxes
phospholipids
7 traits of lipids
1. concentrated form of energy
2. insulation
3. organ padding
4. structural element of cell
5. component of hormones & prostaglandins
6. increase abs of fat sol nutrients
7. reduce dustiness of feed
define simple lipids
esters of FAs w/ various alcohols
define fats
esters of FAs w/ glycerol
(e.g. TAG)
lipids contain more H or O?
more O
besides, CHO, what elements can lipids contain?
P, N
define complex lipids
esters of FAs containing groups in addition to an alcohol & a FA
3 classes of complex lipids
1. phospholipids
2. glycolipids
3. other
define phospholipid
phosphoric acid + N-containing bases
Deficiency signs of Vit C are?
1) Scurvy (man) poor gums, loose teeth 2) Impaired wound heeling 3) Hemorhaging 4) Poor bones
Sources of Vit C are?
Fruits and Vegetables (e.g. citrus fruits, tomatoes & potatoes)
The .... and the ... ... are unusual in having a dietary requirement for Vit C
Monkey, Guinea Pig
In ruminants, what are the 3 vitamins that are typically added to the feed of young ruminants?
Vitamins A, D & E
Ruminants generally have Water soluble vitamins added to their diets when?
In high stress situations
In Non ruminants, what vitamins are generally added to the diet?
Vitamins A, D, E (or anti oxidants) & K (in chicks)
Riboflavin is generally added to ... ..., as ..... are low in it, and it is inexpensive
most feeds, grains
Niacin is added to .... diets
corn
All plants based diets have which vitamins added?
Riboflavin and Vit B12
define sterol
lipids w/ phenanthrene-type ring structure
examples of sterols
steroid hormones (cholesterol)
what 3 things can cholesterol be made into?
bile
steroid hormone
vitamin D
how many carbons in a FA?
2-24C
most FAs have an even # of C, but _______ can be odd #, and even have ________ chains
bacteria; branched chains
acetic = x C
2
myristic = x C
14
stearic acid (octadecanoic)
C18:0
oleic acid (octadeconic acid)
C18;1
linoleic acid (octadecadienoic acid)
C18:2
linolenic acid (octadecatrienoic acid)
C18:3
FAs in plants (vs animals)
unsaturated
grains: High C18:2 (linoleic acid)
hay: High C18:3 (linolenic acid)
FAs in animals (vs plants)
sat & unsat
High C16:0 & C18:1 (oleic acid)
Plants are high in what kind of FA?
unsaturated--18:2 & 18:3 (linoleic & linolenic)
Level of fat in typical diets:
R: very low (<5%)
NR: 10-30%
Fat in pig diet
<10%
Fat in poultry diet
<10%
Fat in cat/dog diet
20-30%
Essential FAs (3)
linoleic (18:2)
linolenic (18:3)
arachidonic (C20:4)
Where are the essential FAs found?
C18:2
C18:3
C20:4
18:2 = grains, P,A
18:3 = P, ~A
20:4 = A
Signs of EFA deficiency (4)
1. skin lesions
2. repro failure
3. edema
4. subq hemmorhage
Why isn't EFA deficiency seen in R?
the bugs make EFAs
What is the key requirement for fat digestion?
solubility
What is solubility enhanced by in lipid absorption? (3)
1. micelles
2. chylomicrons
3. lipoproteins
What 4 things does bile consist of?
1. bile salts
2. Plipids
3. cholesterol
4. bicarb
How does bile return to the liver?
via enterohepatic circulation
What are the 2 functions of bile?
1. increase pH
2. act as detergenet to emulsify lipids for lipase action
salivary & gastric lipase do what?
TAG + H2O --> DG + FA --> MG + FA
What 4 things does pancreatic juice consist of?
1. pancreatic lipase
2. phospholipase
3. cholesterol esterase
4. bicarbonate
where is intestinal lipase from?
enterocytes
What does intestinal lipase do?
TAG + H2O --> 2-MG + 2 free FAs
Where does lipid absorption mainly occur?
jejunum (passive abs)
Most short-chain FAs are absorbed....
directly into portal blood
There is re-assembly of TAG in the enterocyte & formation of what?
a chylomicron
Where do chylomicrons go?
into lymphatic vessels
What is the mechanism for cholesterol excretion?
the 1-5% bile acids & cholesterol not abs in the small intestine
What kind of diet promotes cholesterol & bile salt excretion via feces?
High fiber
What do rumen bugs hydrolyze in order to produce FFAs?
TAGs & forage galactolipids
What 2 things are fermented to VFAs?
glycerol & galactose
The rumen is a REDUCING envt. Therefore, FAs are _______ to a more ___________ state by the bugs.
hydrogenated; saturated
What are factors influencing abs of lipids? (5)
1. degree of sat
2. FA chain length
3. amount of fat consumed
4. overheating & autooxidation
5. amount of dietary Ca
Increased saturation has what effect on digestibility?
decreases
>18C FA chain has what effect on digestibility?
decreased
high fat diet has what effect on digestibility & abs
decreases dig & abs
What is autooxidation?
rancidification of double bond of FA
the higher the dietary Ca, the _____ the abs of FAs
lower
FAs are ____________ to a more _____________ state by rumen bugs, because the rumen is a _______________ envt.
hydrogenated; saturated; reducing
The FA arriving at the SI in ruminants are the same as what they ate. T/F
False. different
how are lipids transported in the body
lipoproteins
Lipoprotein core=
cholesterol esters & TAGs
Lipoprotein has a hydrophilic outside consisting of (3)
apoprotein
phospholipid
cholesterol
Classification of lipoproteins from low to high density (4)
chylomicron/portomicron
VLDL
LDL
HDL
Which lipoprotein has the most TAG?
chylomicrons
Which lipoproteins are from the liver? (3)
VLDL
LDL
HDL
What do HDLs do w/ cholesterol?
take it from tissue --> liver
The function of lipoproteins is to
transport lipids to tissues
What is the "good" cholesterol?
HDL
define Lipogenesis
TAG synthesis
What 2 things do you need for TAG synthesis/lipogenesis?
FA + glycerol
Define beta-oxidation
Oxidation of FA's so that 2C units are liberated to generate Acetyl-CoA (for futher oxidation in the TCA cycle)
all the acetyl-CoA from beta-oxidation go to?
TCA --> CO2
What is the opposite of lipolysis?
Esterification
Is there higher absorption of sat or unsat FAs?
unsaturated (e.g. oleic 18:1 & linoleic 18:2)
saturated fats are precursors for
cholesterol
Where do FA & TAG synthesis occur in mammals and birds?
mammals = adipose tissue
birds = liver
What is the major substrate for TAG synthesis in NR?
glucose
What is the major substrate for TAG synthesis in R?
acetate
Whenever we hear about acetate, it's all about making ?
FAT
What tissues can oxidize FAs?
liver, muscle, and others
After a high-fat meal, what is numerous in the blood?
chylomicrons
After a high fat meal, where does lipogenesis occur primarily from?
dietary FAs
After a high CHO meal, lipogenesis occurs from ____ or ____.
glucose or acetate
In the post-absorptive state, there are lots or little chylomicron?
little
In the post-absorptive state, what process begins & why?
lipolysis; to increase FFAs in blood for energy & LDL synthesis
Obesity is BMI > x
30
What is the normal amount of fat in the liver vs Fatty Liver Syndrome?
5% --> >30%
What 4 things can cause Fatty Liver Syndrome?
1. High fat or CHO diet
2. excessive lipid mobilization
3. impaired liver transport from liver
4. liver damage
Dietary lipids provide what two things to animals?
Energy & EFAs
What is the most expensive component of the diet?
Protein
Most body protein is where?
in body fluids & muscle
What is the mnemonic to remember the dietary essential aa's?
MATT HILL VP
What are the dietary essential aa's?
met, arg, tryptophan, threonine
histidine, isolecuine, leuc, lys
valine, phenylalanine
methionine =
S-aa
arg, histidine, lys =
basic aa
tryptophan =
heterocyclic aa
isoleucine, leucine, valine =
branched chain aa
phenylalanine =
aromatic aa
Essential aa are not ______________________________________ in sufficient amounts to meet all metabolic needs.
synthesized in body tissues
How is a peptide bond formed?
carboxyl group + amino group - H2O (condensation rxn)
What protein digesting enzymes are located in the NR stomach?
pepsin & HCl (prot --> peptides/peptones)
What protein digesting enzympes are in pancreatic juice? (4)
trypsin, chymotrypsin, elastase, carboxypeptidase (--> peptides & di/tripeptides)
What protein digesting enzymes are in the intestinal musoca? (2)
aminopeptidase & dipeptidase (--> free aa's)
What is better to absorb: peptides or aa?
PEPTIDES
Why are peptides better to absorb?
peptides require no energy for abs; free amino acids do

This req less digestion by proteolytic enzymes
What are the 3 fates of dietary protein (or N) in R?
1. RUP (escapes breakdown in rumen & goes to abomasum)
2. microbial fermentation of protein
3. microbial fermentation of NPN
What eventually happens to N from
-microbial fermentation of protein &
-microbial fermentation of NPN?
it is converted to bacterial protein & goes to the abomasum
So where does all dietary N eventually go?
Abomasum.
NH3 is toxic, so what does the body do with it?
the liver converts it to urea
What happens to urea?
recycled back to rumen via saliva, or
excreted via the kidneys
What is the protein in the abomasum a mixture of?
RUP & microbial protein
RUP is related to
solubility
very soluble proteins are....
rapidly degraded by rumen bugs
insoluble proteins...
remain intact in rumen, and are digested in the abomasum & SI
very insol proteins...
are poorly digested even in the stomach & SI
What is the goal of dietary protein?
intermediate solubility, so that some good qual plant protein bypasses the rumen & some is fermented to make microbial protein
Treatments to make very soluble proteins intermediately soluble = (3)
1. mild heating
2. dehydration pelleting
3. formaldehyde treatment
NPN sources for R (3)
1. urea
2. biuret
3. NH4 salts (e.g. lactate or phosphate)
Methods to feed NPN (4)
1. add to silage or corn
2. add to mixed feed
3. LPS (liquid protein suppl.)
4. put in vitamin-mineral premix
Why are NPN sources used in R?
they're a cheap source of CP
How are NPNs used by rumen microbes?
to synthesize C skeletons
NH3 levels need to be kept low because
too much NH3 is toxic
Once proteins enter the abomasum, dig & abs
are similar to that in NRs.
3 main fates of aa after absorption
1. tissue protein synthesis
2. synth of enz, hormones
3. deamination & transamination (& use of C skeleton for energy)
What is the key organ in N metabolism?
liver
What does the liver do w/ N? (3)
1. synthesizes proteins
2. supplies aa to circulation
3. processes excess N for excretion
What is deamination?
aa --> C skeleton + NH3
for aa degradation & removal
for synth of non-ess aa's
for energy during starvation
C skeletons of aa's are either:
ketogenic or glucogenic
nonessential/dispensable aa's make up x % of tissue protein
40-50%
What is transamination?
interconverts a pair of aa and a pair of keto acids
what does transmation require?
vitamin B6
Most aa--but not all--undergo trans/deamination
transamination
How is N excreted?
as urea
What is the structure of urea
O
NH2--C--NH2
What two animals have no urea cycle?
birds & reptiles (egg layers)
What do birds & reptiles convert N to for excretion?
uric acid = purine ring structure
uric acid is sol/unsol & toxic/non-toxic
soluble & non-toxic
about 50% of CP req = essential aa req & 50% = non-essential aa req
True
What are the 3 top limiting aa's
met, lys, thr
what are the 3 limiting aa to produce milk?
cys, thr, met
What is the limiting aa in most diets of pigs?
lysine
3 limiting aa to produce milk
cys, met, thr
limiting aa in pigs
lys
2 limiting aa in poultry & horse
met, lys
soybean meal contains what bad thing? how do you get rid of it?
trypsin inhibitor (inhib prot dig)
mild heating/roasting
cottonseed meal contains what bad thing?
gossypol (toxic to NR)
also, sterulic acid
nutrition
is making me want to scream
peanut meal contains what bad thing?
aflatoxin
low protein diet --> (4)
1. poor growth
2. poor production
3. poor feed efficiency
4. increased fat
severe protein deficiency --> (3)
1. poor growth
2. aa imbalance
3. deficiency signs
excess protein --> (5)
1. $$
2. normal growth
3. big kidneys
4. increased drinking
5. higher vitamin needs
if diet has excess of an individual aa -->
poor growth
adequate aa pattern but low energy in diet -->
reduced growth because aa are degraded and used as an E source
There are x naturally occurring aa
20
There are x dietary essential aa for NR's
10-12
Rumen microflora ferments most diet N, so a mixture of _______ + ___________ moves into the abomasum.
microbial protein & RUP
Cattle, Sheep, Goats and Antelopes are classed as?
Herbivores
Lions and Dogs are classed as?
Carnivores
Pigs are classed as?
Omnivores
The true stomach of ruminants is known as the ..... and it performs the same functions as the stomach as ......
Abomasum, Monogastric
The end products of digestion of both the ruminant and monogastric stomach are?
Metabolizable energy (Kcal from CHO), Amino acids (body building blocks), Fatty acids and Glycerol (from lipids)
Animal feeds can be classifed into?
Roughages, Concentrates, Succulents
Roughages are?
Bulky feedstuffs which have a high fibre content
The CF content of roughages is more than?
18%
Meat and Bone meal is obtained by?
Heating, drying and grinding whole or part of animals from which fat may be partially extracted or physically removed
Meat and bone meal is free from?
Hooves, horns, bristles, hair, feathers & digective tract contents
Meat meal is high in ? It is also rich in what?
Crude Protein (66-70% for reference) , Ash, Ca, P, Mn, B complex
Well processed fish is rich in which essential amino acids?
Lysine, cystine, methionine, and tryptophan
Digestibility of fish meal is?
93-95%
Minerak content of fish meal is?
10-22%
Energy of fish meal is?
14MJ/Kg DM
Inclusion of fish meal in the diet is?
50kg/ton
How is blood meal obtained?
By drying the blood of slaughtered animals
Blood used for blood meal is steamed to what temperature to ensure seterilisation?
100 degrees Celcius
Protein content of blood meal is?
80%
Blood meal has low ...... and is fairly .....
Digestibility, Unpalatable
Inclusion of blood meal in the diet is?
10-20kg/ton
To make blood meal palatable, what is added to it?
Molasses
Inclusion of blood meal in the diet is?
10-20kg/ton
To make blood meal palatable, what is added to it?
Molasses
Non Protein Nitrogen (NPN) feedstuffs are?
Feedstuffs that contain nitrogen in a form other than protein
Organic NPN compounds include:
Ammonia, Amides, Amines, Amino Acids, Some peptides
Inorganic NPN includes salts such as:
Ammonium Chloride, Ammonium Sulphate
Of all the NPNs, which dominates for feeding animals with a function rumen as a substitute for protein feed?
Urea
Urea has a nitrogen content of?
46.6%
Urea is rapidly hydrolysed to ... which is incoporated into ... .... and microbial protein by .... ....
Ammonia, amino acids, ruminal bacteria
Urea must not be consumed to rapidly by the animal because?
It may be toxic or leathal
What must urea be consumed with and why?
Readily available CHO, to prevent toxicity
Not more than .... of total nitrogen should be supplied by Urea
1/3
Which animals should NEVER be given Urea?
Young ruminants and monogastrics
Single Cell Proteins (SCP) are obtained from?
Single cell organisms, such as algae, yeast, bacteria
Ingredients that contain more than ... of their total weight in crude protein are known as?
Protein supplements
Algae contains rougly?
50% protein, 6-7% fibre, 4-6% fat, 6% ash
Energy rich concentrates are?
Feedstuffs that are added to the ration in order to increase to increase the energy intake, or increase energy density of the feed
Examples of energy rich concentrates are?
Cereal grains and their milling by-products, liquid feeds (molasses), fat and oils
Energy from high energy feedstuffs is supplied by?
Readily available CHO e.g. sugar/starches, fats or oils
Feedstuffs are labelled "high energy" because?
The avaiable energy is much greater per unit of DM compared with that of roughages
High energy foods generally have ... to .... level of protein
Low, moderate
Corn is?
Highly digestable and palatable
Energy content of corn is?
3,400 Kcal or 14.2 MJ of ME/Kg DM
Protein content of corn is?
9-14%
Corn is low in?
Lysine, tryptophan, and Crude Fibre
Corn has an oil content of?
4-6%
The inclusion of corn in swine ration is?
10-20%
Sorghum is?
More drought resistant than corn
Energy content of sorghum is?
3250 Kcal or 13.6 MJ of ME/Kg DM
Crude Protein content of sorghum is?
11-12%
Sorghum is defiecient in?
Lysine and theronine
The anti nutritional factors that supress digestibiltiy in some forms of sorghum are?
Tannin and Prussic acid
Barley is a popular feed for which animal?
Pigs
Energy content of Barley is?
13.3 MJ/kg DM
Crude Protein content of Barley is?
6-16%
Barley is deficient in?
Lysine
What is the name given to a number of species of cereals, that produce small grains widely cultivated in the tropics?
Millet
What is the Crude protein content of millet? Crude fibre content?
10-12%, 2-9%
How much of the wheat produced worldwide is used as animal feed?
20%
Wheat has a better ..... .... distribution than most cereal grains
amino acid
Wheat can cause what problem in un-adapted animals
Indegestion
Some by-products of milling that are used in animal feeds are?
Brewer's grain waste (BGW), Rice polishing, Maize bran, Wheat pollard