Ancient History Half Yearly 2

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Primary Source

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- created during the period under investigation
- created by someone who saw, heard, or experienced the event themselves
- e.g. Diaries, letters, art, maps, ecofacts, tools, graffiti, jewellery, buildings/ruins

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Secondary Source

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- created after the period under investigation
- often uses primary sources as examples, or other secondary sources
- will often include opinion or an argument about a past event
- e.g. Textbooks, encyclopaedias, Biographies, Historians, replicas of original artefacts, photographs of sites, computer reconstructions.

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Archaeologist (Historian)

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the scientific study of prehistoric peoples and their cultures by analysis of their artifacts, inscriptions, monuments, etc.

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Anthropologist (Historian)

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the study of humans, their origins, physical characteristics, institutions, religious beliefs, social relationships, etc.

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Cryptographer (Historian)

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the procedures, processes, methods, etc., used to translate or interpret secret writings, as codes and ciphers, for which the key is unknown.

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Linguist (Historian)

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the study of changes in a language or group of languages over a period of time.

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Forensic Scientist (Historian)

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encompasses many different fields of science, including anthropology, biology, genetics, medicine, pathology, and toxicology.

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Paleontologist (Historian)

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The study of the forms of life existing in prehistoric or geologic times, as represented by the fossils of plants, animals, and other organisms.

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BCE
CE

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Before Common Era
Common Era

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Prehistory
History
Ancient History
Modern History

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Prehistory = time before invention of writing (3500BC)
History = time after invention of writing (after 3500BC)
Ancient History = period before fall of Roman Empire (476AD)
Modern History = period since French Revolution (1789)

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Herodotus

(Greek Historian)
'Father of History'

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- Lived around the time of the Persian Wars (484BC-425BC).
- Known for 'The Histories' (formed modern history, truth and objectivity).
- Based on oral histories collected travelling.
- Discussed military and diplomatic (critical but inaccurate),

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Thucydides

(Greek Historian)

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- Lived around 460BC to 400BC.
- 'History of the Peloponnesian War' (Sparta and Athens).
- Family connections brought him close to those shaping history.
- Work based on oral sources & experiences.
- Subjectivity affected by suffering from war and worried about Athenian imperialism.

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Polybius

(Greek Historian)

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- Lived around 203-120BC
- Exiled to Rome and befriended a Senator.
- Work related mostly to Roman history (military, political, diplomatic).
- 'The Rise of the Roman Empire' book (written, oral sources, experiences).

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Tacitus

(Roman Historian)

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- Lived around AD56-140 BC
- Wealthy middle class (rose to Senator).
- 'Annals' and 'Histories' most famous for.
- Used official Roman documents as sources.
- Relatively Subjective.
- Concerned with balance of power between Roman Senate and Emperors.

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Quintus Curtius Rufus

(Roman Historian)

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- Lived around ?-AD53 and middle class.
- Ten work book 'History of Alexander the Great' some parts missing.
- Used historical sources (e.g. biography of AG) and analysed events/people.

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Plutarch

(Roman Historian)

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- Lived around 46AD to 120AD.
- 'Parallel Lives' (series of biographies on famous Greeks and Romans to illuminate common moral virtues and failings).
- Explored influence of Character on famous men.

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Suetonius

(Roman Historian)

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- Lived 69AD- 140AD.
- 'The Twelve Caesars' (heritage, habits, appearances of roman emperors).
- Imperial archives as sources.

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Arrian

(Roman Historian)

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- Lived around 92AD-175AD
- Greek
- Roman General and Senator.
- 'Anabasis' most relied on account of Alexander the Great's life

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Dio Cassius

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- Lived around 155AD- 229AD.
- Senator.
- History covered 980 years.

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Historians reasons for writing

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- Preserving the Past.
- Tell the truth.
- Promote personal/political viewpoint.
- Explain an event.

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Prehistorians

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Specialise in the periods from the earliest human life to the beginning of written history. They rely solely on material remains.

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Specialists:
Egyptologists
Classical Archaeologists
Historical Archaeologists
Industrial Archaeologists
Marine Archaeologists

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E: Study the culture of ancient Egypt e.g. language skills to decipher hieroglyphics.
C: Written and archaeological remains from Greece and Rome.
H: Study more recent sites with the aid of written records.
I: Sites, buildings and objects built and manufactured over last 300 years.
M: Submerged structures, shipwrecks, sea and lake beds with complex machinery and techniques.

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Field Archaeologist
Forensic Archaeologist

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Field: search for archaeological sites and collect information about the location, distribution and organization of past human cultures.
Forensic:application of archaeological principles, techniques and methodologies in a legal context.

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Landscape Archaeologist
Environmental Archaeologist
Experimental Archaeologist

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Land: people in the past constructed and used the environment around them
Enviro: science reconstructing the relationship between ancient peoples and the environments they lived in
Experiment: generate and test archaeological hypotheses, usually by replicating or approximating the feasibility of ancient cultures performing various tasks or feats.

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People who may assist in an archaeological investigation

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Photographers, Architects, Historians, DNA Experts, Biologists, Botanists

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Steps for Archaeology

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1. Locate the Site
2. Excavation- 'working the dig' (digging through layers, recording everything)
3. Analysis- study of the information collected (clean objects, date objects, expert interpretation, recording everything, compare with already known info, preserve finds).

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Chance Finds

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'Lost sites' exposed by rain, wind, human activity such as farming or construction e.g. ice man.

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Written Documents

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Information may come from old texts, maps, illustrations (give details including site name) e.g. Schliemann used ancient writers to discover Troy.

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Aerial Photographs

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Ultra-violet filters and infrared film makes it easier to locate traces of past human activity on landscape which would otherwise be invisible.
- Contour: Differences in relief are shown by shadows which outline buried structures.
- Shadow Sites
- Vegetation/Crop Marks (Vegetation is sparse/discoloured over buried structures and taller over ditches).
- Discolouration: Hidden ruins change above soil colour. Concentration in ditches, outs and wells makes the soil darker (damp marks).

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Surveying (Geophysical)

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Used to check the findings of aerial photog, ancient writings, maps etc on foot examining the relief of the land (mounds/tell), variations in contour, bones etc.
- Magnetic Surveying: Hidden structures affect the Earth's natural magnetic field.
- Soundwave Surveying: Determine areas of varying density and hollowness e.g. burial

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Photographic Probe

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- Used when there is a suspected burial chamber.
- Probe with attached camera lowered into an opening.
- Probe and camera rotated providing 360 view of interior.

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Trial Trenches

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Once a site is located, parallel trenches in a grid pattern may be dug to determine the extent of the site.

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What method of excavation depends on

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- Location
- shape
- soil
- information expected to be gained
- what is going to be done to the site after excavation

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Vertical Excavation (Stratigraphy & Step Trenching)

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- Stratigraphy – study and interpretation of what has been deposited in layers of earth
- Step trenching – alternative form of vertical exca. where trenches very deep (better support walls etc.)

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Horizontal/ Open Air Excavation (Layer by layer)

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- Excavation of site layer by layer, instead of seeing layers in whole block
- Suitable for large sites
- Open area exca. has more destructive impact (each layer removed to see next one)

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Excavation of Barrows

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- Quadrant method: form of vertical excavation (layers in block). Divided into 4 quadrants. Quadrants removed layer by layer, but four baulks remain to be studied.
- Strip method: dividing area into parallel strips. Strips removed until artefact found. Artefact excavated. Remainder of barrow excavated.

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Box Grid Excavation

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- site divided into squares
- each sq. numbered/excavated, leaving wall/baulk in between
- baulks provide vertical record of layers
- layers called strata
- strata labelled + everything found with

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Paleontological Dating

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History of animal life. Know when species appeared/became extinct. Bones found rough date given.

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Potassium-Argon Dating

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Date volcanic rock. Amount of argon gas remaining as potassium in rock decays at fixed rate – measure to determine age of rock.