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124 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Gene |
A DNA segment that carries information for building one protein or polypeptide chain *its estimated that a single gene has between 300 and 3000 base pairs in sequence |
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Fibrous (structural) protein |
Appear most often in body structures - very important in binding structures together and providing strength in certain body tissues (eg. keratin and collagen) |
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Globular proteins |
Mobile, generally compact, spherical molecules - water soluble - Play crucial roles in virtually all biological processes - Called functional proteins because they do more than form structures (eg. antibodies and hormones) |
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Enzymes |
Regulate essentially every chemical reaction that goes on in the body - biological catalysts - every chemical reaction that takes place within the body requires an enzyme |
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Triplet |
Three base sequence specifying a particular amino acid on the DNA gene |
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Codon |
The corresponding three-base sequence on mRNA |
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Anticodon |
A sequence of three nucleotides forming a unit of genetic code in a transfer RNA molecule, corresponding to a complementary codon in messenger RNA |
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Amino acids |
The building blocks of proteins that are joined during protein synthesis |
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RNA |
- Differs from DNA in being single stranded and in having ribose sugar instead of deoxyribose - Has a uracil base instead of thymine |
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What are the three types of RNA that play a role in protein synthesis? |
1) Transfer RNA (tRNA) (small, cloverleaf-shaped) 2) Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) (helps form ribosomes, where proteins are built) 3) Messenger RNA (mRNA) |
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Transfer RNA (tRNA) |
Small, cloverleaf-shaped molecules |
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Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) |
Helps form ribosomes, where proteins are built |
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Messenger RNA (mRNA) |
Long singles nucleotide strands - Resemble half of a DNA molecule - Carry the "message" containing instructions for protein synthesis from the DNA gene in the nuclues to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm |
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What are the two major phases of protein synthesis? |
Transcription and translation |
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Transcription |
Where complimentary mRNA is made at the DNA gene - Involves the transfer of information from DNA's base sequence into the complementary base sequence of mRNA |
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Translation |
When the information carried in mRNA is "decoded" and used to assemble proteins -occurs in the cytoplasm (the fluid within the cell) and all three varieties of RNA |
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Step 1 - Transcription |
mRNA specifying one polypeptide is made the DNA template |
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Step 2 - Translation |
mRNA leaves the nucleus and attaches to the ribosome to begin translation. Once the mRNA attaches to the ribosome, tRNA comes into the picture. It transfers, or ferries, amino acids to the ribosome, where they are bound together by enzymes in the exact sequence specified by the gene |
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Step 3 - Translation |
Incoming tRNA recognize a complementary mRNA codon calling for its amino acid by binding its anticodon to the codon |
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Step 4 - Translation |
Once the first tRNA has maneuvered itself into the correct position at the beginning of the mRNA message, the ribosome moves the mRNA strand along, bringing the next codon into position to be read by another tRNA. As amino acids are brought to their proper positions along the length of mRNA, they are joined together by enzymes. |
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Step 5 - Translation |
As an amino acid bonds to the chain, its tRNA is released and moves away from the ribosome to pick up another amino acid. When the last codon (the termination, or stop codon) is read, the protein is released. |
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Tissues |
Groups of cells that are similar in function and structure |
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Four types of tissues |
1) Epithelium - covering 2) Connective - support 3) Muscle - movement 4) Nervous - control |
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Epithelial |
The lining, covering, and glandular tissue of the body. - Fuctions include protection, absorption, filtration, and secretion - form continuous sheets (except glandular) - always have one free (unattached) surface or edge that is exposed to the bodys exterior or to the cavity of an internal organ - have no blood supply on their own; they depend on diffusion from the capillaries in the underlying connective tissue for food and oxygen - regenerate easily (if well nourished) |
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Basement membrane |
A thin, extracellular membrane underlying epithelial tissue. *when looking at diagrams, looks first for the basement membrane. If its there its epithelial tissue |
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What are the classifications of epithelial tissue? |
Classified (named) by cell arrangement (layers) 1) Simple epithelium (one layer of cells) 2) Stratified epithelium (more than one layer) and cell shape 1) Squamous 2) Cubodial 3) Columnar |
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Simple epithelia |
Most concerned with absorption, secretion, and filtration - Simple squamous epithelium - Simple cubodial epithelium - Simple columnar epithelium (contain goblet cells) - Pseudostratified columnar epithelium |
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Stratified epithelia |
More durable, function mainly to protect - Stratified columnar epithelium - Stratified cubodial epithelium - Stratified squamous epithelium - Transitional epithelium - Glandular epithelium |
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Goblet cells
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- simple columnal epithelium - line the entire digestive tract from the stomach to the anus |
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Connective tissue
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- Characterized by the presence of a nonliving, extracellular matrix - eg. bones, tendons, cartilage, tendons, fat and other soft padding tissue |
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Muscle tissue
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3 type: Skeletal - muscles attached to bone Cardiac - muscles of the heart Smooth - muscles of walls of hollow organs |
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Nervous tissue |
- brain, spinal cord, and nerves |
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Tissue repair - regeneration
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- epithelia and connective tissue regenerate well |
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Tissue repair - fibrosis |
- mature cardiac muscle and nervous tissue are repaired through fibrosis |
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Body membranes
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Fall into two major groups 1) Epithelial membranes 2) Connective tissue membranes |
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Cutaneous membrane |
Skin The superficial epidermis composed of a keratinized stratified squamous epithelium - the underlying dermis is mostly dense (fibrous) connective tissue - exposed to air (a dry membrane) |
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Mucous membrane
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- "Wet" or moist membranes that are almost continually bathed in secretions - Composed of epithelium resting on lamina propria (loose connective tissue membrane) - lines all body cavities that are open to the exterior (eg., respiratory, digestive, urinary, reproductive) |
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Serous membrane
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- composed of a layer of simple squamous epithelium resting on a thin layer of areolar connective tissue - Occurs in pairs - parietal and visceral - named according to location (eg. peritoneum, pleura, pericardium) |
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Parietal layer
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- lines a specific portion of the wall of the ventral body cavity |
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Visceral layer |
- covers the outside of the organs in that cavity |
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What is the best way to visualize the serosal layers? |
Imagine pushing your fist into a limp balloon only partially filled with air. Visceral - the part of the balloon that clings to your first Parietal - the outer wall of the balloon |
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Serous fluid |
- thin clear fluid secretes by both membranes - allows organ to slide across the cavity walls without creating friction (extremely important to a pumping heart or churning stomach) |
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Synovial membranes |
- Line the fibrous capsules surrounding joints - contains no epithelial cells! |
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Epidermis |
Composed of us to 5 layers 1)Basale - deepest layer, looks like cardboard 2) Spinosum - next layer, cells being pushed up, becoming flatter and full of keratin 3) Granulosum - cells die after this layer 4) Luciderm - layer of dead cells (hairless - feet and hands) 5) Corneum - Outermost layer, 20/30 layers thick, cells completely filled with keratin |
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Melanin |
A pigment that ranges in colour from yellow to brown to black - produced by spider-shaped cells called melanocytes - stimulated by sunlight |
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What three pigments give skin its colour? |
1) Amount and kind of melanin on the epidermis 2) Amount of carotine in the stratum corneum and subcutaneous tissue 3) The amount of oxygen-rich hemoglobin in dermal blood vessels |
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Dermis |
"the hide" Composed of dense connective tissue Site of blood vessels, nerves, and epidermal appendages |
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What two types of fibers are found in the reticular (deepest) layer of the dermis? |
1) Collagen - responsible for toughness
2) Elastic - gives the skin elasticity when we are young |
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Where do skin appendages form? |
In the epidermis but reside in the dermis. Skin appendages include hair and hair follicles, nails, and the cutaneous glands (oil and sweat glands) |
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Sebaceous (oil) glands |
Produce an oily product (sebum) - usually ducted into a hair follicle - keeps the skin and hair soft - contains bacteria containing chemicals |
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Sweat (sudoriferous) glands |
Produce sweat - ducted to the epithelial surface - controlled by the nervous system - part of the body's heat-regulating apparatus |
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What are the two types of sweat glands? |
1) Eccrine - the most numerous, found all over the body 2) Apocrine - mostly confined to the armpit and genitals. Larger than eccrine glands. Product includes fatty acids and proteins - which skin bacteria metabolize |
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Hair and follicle |
Hair is a flexible epithelial structure, composed primarily of deal keratinized cells. Produced by the matrix in the hair bulb. Each hair has a: - Hair shaft - Arrector pili (raiser of hair) - Sebaceous gland - Hair root - Hair bulb in follicle |
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Nails |
Hornlike derivatives of the epidermis. Also made up of primarily dead keratinized cells. Each nail has a: - Free edge - Body (visible attached portion) - Root (embedded in skin) - Lunule (thickened white crescent) |
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What are the two principal divisions that make up the nervous system? |
Peripheral and central |
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The two types of cells found in the nervous system are: |
neurons and glia cells |
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The part of the neuron that carries impulses away from the neuron cell body is the... |
axon |
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The types of neurons that carry impulses away from the brain and spinal cord are called: |
motor and efferent |
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Interneurons connect: |
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Cells that produce myelin for the cells of the brain and spinal cord are the: |
oligodendrocytes |
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Cells that are important in the blood brain barrier are the: |
astrocytes |
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Cells that produce myelin for cells outside the brain and spinal cord are the: |
Schwann cells |
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Glia cells that act as microbe-eating cells are the: |
microglia |
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When the nerve impulse encounters a myelin-covered section of neuron: |
it jumps over the myelin |
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A synapse includes: |
a very narrow synaptic cleft |
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Neurotransmitters: |
can diffuse back into the synaptic knob |
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The brainstem includes the: |
pons, midbrain, and medulla oblongata |
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The “vital centers” (the cardiac, respiratory, and vasomotor centers)are located in the: |
medulla oblongat |
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The coordination of muscle movement and the maintenance of equilibrium occur in the: |
cerebellum |
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The right and left sides of the cerebrum are connected by the: |
corpus callosum |
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The ridges in the cerebrum are called: |
gyri |
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The tough outer layer of meninges is called the: |
dura mater |
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The parasympathetic nervous system: |
releases acetylcholine from its postganglionic axons |
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Which structure is part of the diencephalon? |
hypothalamus |
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The lobe of the brain that deals with vision is the: |
occipital lobe |
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The lobe of the brain that contains the auditory area is the: |
temporal lobe |
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The somatic nervous system controls actions of: |
skeletal muscles |
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A group of nerve cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system is called a |
ganglion |
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Which nervous system makes up part of the autonomic nervous system? |
sympathetic nervous system |
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Which nervous system dominates the control of effector organs under normal, everyday conditions? |
parasympathetic nervous system |
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How is the nervous system classified? |
In terms of structures or functions |
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What are the two subdivisions of structural classification? |
CNS (brain and spinal cord) or the PNS (nerves and ganglia) |
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What are the two subdivisions of functional classification? |
Sensory / afferent division (sad) or motor / efferent division (med) |
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What are the two subdivisions of the motor division? |
Somatic / voluntary nervous system or Autonomic / involuntary nervous system |
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Central Nervous System |
- consists of the brain and spinal cord - acts as the integrating and command center by interpreting incoming sensory information and issuing instructions |
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Peripheral Nervous System |
- Consists mainly of nerves that extend from the brain and spinal cord Spinal nerves - carry impulses to and from the spinal cord Cranial nerves - carry impulses to and from the brain |
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Sensory / afferent division |
Carry impulses to the CNS from sensory receptors from sensory receptors all around the body Somatic sensory fibers - impulses delivered from the skin, skeletal muscles and joints Visceral sensory fibers - impulses delivered from the visceral organs |
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Motor / efferent division |
Carries impulses from the CNS to effector organs, muscles and glands to activate / effect a motor response |
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Somatic nervous system |
Allows us to voluntarily control our skeletal muscles |
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Autonomic nervous system |
Regulates events that are automatic eg. the activity of the smooth and cardiac muscles and glands. Has two further subdivisions: the sympathetic and the parasympathetic |
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What are the two types of cells that make up nervous tissue? |
Supporting cells (neuroglia) and neurons |
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Neuroglia (supporting cells) |
"nerve glue" - do not transmit nerve impulses - never lose their ability to divide (unlike neurons) Types of neuroglia: - Astrocytes - Microglia - Ependymal - Oligodendrocytes - Schwann cells - Satellite cells |
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Astrocytes - CNS |
Abundant and versitile star shaped cells - cling to neurons and act as an anchor - Form a living blood-brain barrier |
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Microglia - CNS |
Spiderlike phagocytes - monitor the health or nearby neurons and dispose of debris |
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Ependymal - CNS |
Line the central cavities of the brain and spinal cord - their cilia circulates cerebrospinal fluid - like the brains own epidermal cells |
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Oligodendrocytes - CNS |
Produce myelin sheaths around nerve fibers - can coil around as many as 60 fibers at one time - lack a neurilemma (neuron husk) that aids in regeneration |
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Schwann cells - PNS |
Form the myelin sheaths around nerve fibers found in the PNS - wrap themselves around the axon in a jelly-roll fashion |
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Satellite cells - PNS |
Protective, cushioning cells |
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Neurons |
Highly specialized to transmit messages (nerve impulses) - made up of a cell body and an extending slender process |
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Dendrites (dendr = tree) |
Neuron processes that convey incoming messages towards the cell body - neurons may have hundreds of branching dendrites |
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Axons |
Neuron process that generates nerve impulses away from the cell body Each neuron has only one axon - arises from a conelike region of the cell body called the axon hillock - when impulses reach the axon terminals, they stimulate the release of neurotransmitters into the extracellular space |
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Synaptic cleft / Synapse |
The separation between each axon terminal from the next neuron - a tiny gap |
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Myelin sheath |
A whitish fatty material that covers the nerve fiber - has a waxy appearance - protects and insulates - increases the transmission rate of nerve impulses |
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Node of Ranvier |
The gap or indentation between Schwann cells on a axon |
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Ganglia |
Small collections of cell bodies |
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Tracts |
Bundles of nerve fibers that run through the CNS (in the PNS they are simply called nerves) |
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White matter |
Dense collections of myelinated fibers (tracts) in the CNS |
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Grey matter |
Dense collections of mostly unmyelinated fibers and cell bodies |
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How are neurons classified? |
According to function or structure |
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Functional classification |
Sensory / afferent Motor / efferent Interneurons / association neurons |
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Interneurons / association neurons |
Connect the motor and sensory neurons in neual pathways. - their cell bodies are typically located in the CNS |
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Structural classification |
Multipolar - multiple processes extending from the cell body Bipolar - neurons with two processes Unipolar - have a single process emerging from the cell body |
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What are the two functional properties of neurons? |
1) Irritability - the ability to respond to a stimulus and convert it into a nerve impulse 2) Conductivity - the ability to transmit the impulse to other neurons, muscles or glands |
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What is a nerve impulse and how does it work? |
An electrochemical event that causes a change in neuron plasma permeability. This change allows sodium ions (Na+) to enter the cell, causing depolarization. Once begun, the action potential (nerve impulse) continues over the entire surface of the axon. Electrical conditions of the resting state are restored by the diffusion of potassium ions (K+) out of the cell (repolarization). Ion concentrations of the resting state are now restored by the sodium-potassium pump |
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What happens when the action potential reaches an axon terminal? |
The electrical change opens calcium channels that in turn cause the tiny vesicles containing the neurotransmitter chemical to fuse with the axonal membrane. Porelike openings form and release the transmitter. The neurotransmitter molecules diffuse across the synapse and bind to receptors on the membrane of the next neuron. If enough neurotransmitter is released, the whole series of events (sodium entry, depolarization, etc.) wil occur, leading to a generation of a graded potential and eventually a nerve impulse in the neuron beyond the synapse. *neurotransmitters are quickly removed from the synapse after the binding by diffusion, reuptake, or enzymatic breakdown |
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How is the transmission of an impulse described? |
As an electrochemical evenet Electrical Chemical - The next neuron being stimulated by a neurotransmitter |
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What are the five basic elements of a reflex arc? |
1) Receptor - stimuli 2) Sensory neuron 3) Integration center - CNS 4) Motor neuron 5) Effector - muscle or gland eventually stimulated |
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What are the four major regions of the brain |
Cerebral hemispheres, diencephalon, brain stem, and cerebellum |
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Cerebrum |
The paired cerebral hemispheres - most superior part of the brain Each cerebral hemisphere has three basic regions: - Superficial cortex of gray matter - Internal area of white matter - Basal nucli: the islands of gray matter situated deep within the white matter |
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Gyri |
The elevated ridges of tissue |
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Sulci |
The shallow grooves that separate the gyri |
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Fissures |
Deep grooves that separate the large regions of the brain Longitudinal fissure A single deep fissure that separates the cerebral hemispheres |
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Cerebral cortex : Gray matter |
Localizes and interprets Controls voluntary and skilled skeletal muscle activity Acts in intellectual and emotional processing |
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What are the lobes of the cerebral cortex? (topographical) |
1) |
