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148 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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How do you preserve homeostasis?
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coordinated throught the body
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What do neurons do?
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monitor or control specific groups of cells
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What is the maintenance of reproductive capabilites?
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requires continual control for at least 30 years in a typical female and longer in male
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What system regulates the reproductive system?
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the endocrine
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What does the endocrine system do?
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uses chemical messages to relay information and instructions between cells
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What is direct communication?
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occurs between two cells of the same type and the cells must ne in extensive physical contact, higly specialized and relatively rare
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What do gap junctions do?
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1. coordinate ciliary movement among epithelial cells, 2. coordinate the contractions of cardiac muscle cells and facilitate the propagation of action potentials from one neuron to the next at electrical synapses
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What is paracrine communication?
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the use of chemical messengers to transfer information from cell to cell within a single tissue
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Types of paracrine factors?
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prostaglandins and various growth factors
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What are hormones?
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chemical messengers that are released in one tissue and transported in the bloodstream to alter the activities of specific cells in other tissues
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What are target cells?
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each hormone has these, specific cells that possess the receptors needed to bind and read the hormonal message when it arrives
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What is endocrine communication?
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the activity of hormones in coordinating celluar activites in tissues in distant portions of the body
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What do hormones do?
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produce complex changes in the body's physical structure and physiological capabilities
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How does the nervous system relay messages?
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these messages do not go throught the bloodstream, they have neurons that release neurotransmitters at a synapse very close to the target cells
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What is synaptic communication?
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ideal for crisis management.
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What does the endocrine system include?
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all the endocrine cells, tissues of the body that produce hormones or paracrine factors
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Types of hormones 3?
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amino acid derivatives, peptide hormones and lipid derivatives
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What are amino acid derivatives?
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relatively small molecules, building blocks of proteins
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What are peptide hormones?
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chains of amino acids
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What are lipid deravitives?
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eicosanoids and steroid hormones
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What are eicosanoidlood cellss?
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small molecules with a 5 carbon ring at one end
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What are leukotrienes?
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eicosanoids released by activated white blood cells
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What are prostaglandins?
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produced in most tissues of the body another group of eicosanoids
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What are thromboxanes?
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prostaglandins convert to these
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What are prostacyclins?
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Strong paracrine effects
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What are steroid hormones?
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lipids structurally similar to cholestrol , released by male and female reproductive organs
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Where do hormones release happen?
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where capillaries are abundant and the hormones enter the bloodstream quickly for distribution throughout the body
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What are freely circulating hormones?
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remains functional for less than one hour and sometimes for as little as two minutes
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When are freely circulating hormones inactive?
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diffuses out of the bloodstream and binds to receptors on target cells, it is absorbed and broken down by the cells of the liver and kidney and it is broken down by enzymes in the plasma or intersitital fluids
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The receptors for catecholamines, peptide hormones and eicosanoids are in what membrane?
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Plasma membrane
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What do the first and second messenger do?
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first messenger does something that leads to the appearance of a second messenger in the cytoplasm
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What is amplification?
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magnifies the effect of hormone on the target cell
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What is receptor cascade?
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the arrival of a single hormone may promote the release of more than one type of second messenger or the production of a linked sequence of enzymatic reactions
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What is down regulation?
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process in which the presence of a hormone triggers a decrease in the number of hormone receptors
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What is up regulation?
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is a process in which the absence of a hormone triggers an increase in the number of hormone receptors
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What is G protein?
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an enzyme complex coupled to a membrane receptor
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What does phosphodiesterase do?
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inactivates cyclic-AMP by converting it to AMP
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What are the endocrine reflexes? 3
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humoral stimuli, hormonal stimuli and neural stimuli
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Most cases endocrine reflexes are controlled by?
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Negative feedback
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What are regulatory hormones?
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Special hormones that control endocrine cells in the pituitary gland
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What are neuroendocrine reflexes?
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include both neural and endocrine components
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What is insulin?
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a hormone that stimulates glucose uptake and utilization
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What is hypophysis?
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small oval gland lies nestled within the sella turcica
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What is the infundibulum?
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Slender funnel shaped structure
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Where does the infundibulum lie?
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between the optic chiasm and mamillary bodies
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What is the diaphragma sellas?
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dural sheet that encircles the infundibulum
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What is the adenohypophysis?
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anterior lobe of pituitary gland contains a variety of endocrine cells
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What are the 3 parts of the adenohypophysis?
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pars distalis, pars tuberalis and pars intermedia
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What is the pars distalis?
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the largest and most anterior portion of the pituitary gland
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What is the pars tuberalis?
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an extension which wraps around the adjacent portion of the infundibulum
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What is the pars intermedia?
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slender part that forms a narrow band bordering the neurohypophysis
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What is the median eminence?
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a swelling near the attachment of the infundibulum
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What are fenestrated capillaries?
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allow relatively large molecules to enter or leave the circulatory system
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What are portal vessels?
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blood vessels that link two capillary networks
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What is a portal system?
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The entire complex,
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There is two classes of hypothalamic regulatory hormones?
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releasing and inhibiting hormones
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What are releasing hormones?
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stimulates the synthesis and secretion of one or more hormones at the adenohypophysis
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What are inhibiting hormones?
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prevents the synthesis and secretion of hormones from the adenohypophysis
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The rate at which the hypothalamus secretes regulatory hormones is controlled by?
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Negative feedback
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What are thyroid stimulating hormones?
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targets the thyroid gland and triggers the release of thyroid hormones
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What are adrenocorticotropic hormones?
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stimulates the release of a steroid hormons by the supercanal cortex
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What are gonadotropins?
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regulate the activites of the gonads
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What are hypogonadism?
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an abnormally low production of gonadotropins
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What are follicle stimulating hormones?
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promotes follicle development in females
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What are lutenizing hormones?
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includes ovulation
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What are androgens?
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most important sex hormones in testosterone
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What is proclatin?
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works with other hormones to stimulate mammary gland development
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What are the prolactin-inhibitinh hormones?
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prolactin production inhibited by neurotransmitter dopamine
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What are the growth hormones or somatotropin?
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stimulates cell growth and replication by accelerating the rate of protein synthese
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What is somatomedins?
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when liver cells respond to the presence of growth hormones by synthesizing and releasing these
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What is the glucose sparing effect?
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when circulating fatty acids arise many tissues stop breaking down glucose and start breaking down farrt acids to generate ATP
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What is the diabetogenic effect?
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elevation of blood glucose levels by Growth hormone
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What is melanocyte stimulating hormones?
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stimulates skin increasing their production of melanin
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What is melanin?
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a brown, black, yellow- brown pigment
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What is the neurohypophysis?
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posterior lobe of the pituitary gland because it contains the axons of hypothalamic neurons
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Neurons of the supraoptic and paraventricularnuclei do what?
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manufacture adtidiuretic hormone and oxytonic
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What is the antidiretic hormone?
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released in response to a variety of stimuli, most notably a rise in the solute concentration in the blood or fall in blood volume or pressure
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What is oxytocin?
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stimulates smooth muscle contraction in the wall of the uterus
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What is the thyroid gland?
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curves across the anterior surface trachea, forms most of the anterior surface of the larynx
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What are the two lobes of the thyroid gland united by?
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Isthmus
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What is the isthmus?
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a slender connection
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What are thyroid follicles?
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hollow spheres lined by a simple cubodial epithelium
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What is a follicle cavity?
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holds a viscous colloid
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What is colloid?
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a gel containing large quantities of dissolved particles
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What is thryoglobulin?
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contain the amino and tyrosine
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What is the building block of thyroid hormones?
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amino acid tyrosine
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What is thyroxine?
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contains four iodine ions
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What is triiodothyronine?
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contains three iodine ions
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What is thyroid binding globulins?
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transport protein that molecules entering the bloodstream become attached to
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What is calorigenic effect?
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when the cell consumes more energy and results in increased heat generation
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What are C Cells?
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larger than the follicular epithelium
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What do C Cells produce?
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hormone calcitonin
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What is calcitonin?
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aids in the regulation of Ca2+ concentration in body fluids
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What are parathyroid glands?
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two pairs embedded in the posterior surfaces of the thyroid gland
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The parathyroid glands have two parts?
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the parathyroid cells and the chief cells
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What do chief cells do?
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produce parathyroid hormone,
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What are the three major effects of the parathyrodi hormone?
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it mobilizes calcium from bone by affecting osteoblast and osteoclast activity, enhances the reabsorption of Ca2+ at the kidneys reducing urinary losses and it stimulates the formation and secretion of calcitriol at the kidnes
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What is the suprarenal?
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a yellow pyramid shaped which sits on the superior border of each kidney
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The Suprarenal gland is seperated in 2?
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suprarenal cortex and suprarenal medulla
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What is adrenocortical steroids/ corticosteroids?
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hormones prodiced by the suprarenal cortex
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What is the zona glomerulosa?
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outer region of the superanal cortex
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What does the zona glomerulosa produce?
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mineralocorticoids
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What are mineralocorticoids?
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steroid hormones that affect the electrolyte composition of body fluids
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What is aldosterone?
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principal mineralocorticoid produced by the suprarenal cortex
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What is the zona fasciculata?
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inner border of the zona glomerulosa and extends toward the suprarenal medulla
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What are glucocoticoids?
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steroid hormones in the zona fasciculata
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What is cortisone?
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active glucocoticord
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What is the zona reticularis?
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forms a narrow band bordering for only about 7% of the total volume of the suprarenal cortex
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The suprarenal medulla contains two populations of secretory cells which are?
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epinephrine and norepinephrine
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What is the pineal gland?
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part of the epithalamus lise in the posterior portion of the roof of the third ventricle
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What is the pinealocytes?
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synthesize the hormone melatonin
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What is melatonin?
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from molecules of the neurotransmitter serotonin
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What is the pancreas?
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lies within the abdominopelvic cavity in the loop formed between the inferior border of the stomach and the proximal portion of the small intestine
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What is the exocrive pancreas?
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99% of the pancreatic volume consists of clusters of gland cells called pancreatic acini
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What is the endocrine panreas?
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consists of small groups of cells scattered among the exocrine cells
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What is the pancreatic islets?
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the endocrine clusters
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What are Alpha cells?
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produce the hormone glucagon
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What are the Beta cells?
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produce the hormome insulin
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What are the Delta cells?
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produce a peptide hormone identical to the growth hormone-inhibiting hormone
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What are the F Cells?
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produce the hormone pancreatic polypeptide
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What is insulin?
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a peptide hormone released by beta cells when glucose concentration exceeds normal levels
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What is insulin normal levels?
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70-110mg/dL
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What is the intestines?
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processes and absorbs nutrients, releases a variety of hormones that coordinate the activites of the digestive system
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What are the kidneys?
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release the steroid hormone calcitriol, the peptide hormone erythroproten and the enzyme renin
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What is calcitriol?
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a steroid hormone secreted by the kidneys in response to the presence of parathyroid hormone
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What is erythropoietin?
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is a peptide hormone released by the kidnets in response to low oxygen levels in kidney tissues
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What is renin?
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is released by specialized kidney cells
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What is angiotensinogen?
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a plasma protein produced by the liver
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What is the Thymus?
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located in the mediastinum generally just deep to the sternum
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What is thymosin?
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promotes the development and maturation of lymphocytes
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What is intersitital cells?
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in the testes, produces male hormones known as adrogens
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What is testosterone?
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affects the development of CNS structures includint the hypothalamic nuclei that will later influence sexual behaviors
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What is Nurse cells?
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support the differentiation and physical maturation of sperm
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What is inhibin?
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hormone that inhibits the secretion of FSH at the adenohypophysis
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What is estrogen?
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females steroid hormones, produced in the ovaries
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What is estradiol?
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principle estrogen
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What is progesterone?
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the principal progestin, has several important functions
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What is leptin?
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adipose tissue produces this hormone
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What does leptin do?
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has several functions, main one is the appetite
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What is antagonistic effects?
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the net result depends on the balance between the two hormones
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What is synergistic effect?
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drawing together, example: glucose sparing action of growth hormone and gulcocrticoids
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What is permissive effect?
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first hormone is needed for the second to produce its effect
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What is integrative effect?
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important in coordinating the activities of diverse physiological systems
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What is stress?
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any physical or emotional condition that threataes homeostasis
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What is general adaption syndrome phases 3?
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alarm phase, the resistance phase and the exhaustion phase
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What is the alarm phase?
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an immediate response to the stress occurs
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What is the resistance phase?
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energy demands stay higher here
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What is the exhaustion phase?
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when the homeostatic regulation breaks down, this will cause one organ system at a time to fail
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