Anatomy & Physiology

Front 1

Main macromolecules?

Back 1

Protein

Fat

Carbs

Nurcleic Acid

Front 2

What do proteins break down into?

Back 2

Amino acids

Front 3

Fats get broken down into?

Back 3

Fatty acids or triglycerides

Front 4

Carbohydrates are broken down into?

Back 4

Glucose

Front 5

Chemical reactions that break down complex

organic molecules into simpler ones.

Back 5

What is catabolism?

Front 6

Chemical reactions that combine simple

molecules and monomers to form the body's

complex structural and functional components.

Back 6

What is anabolism?

Front 7

What is endergonic?

Back 7

Reactions that consume more energy than they produce.

Front 8

What is exergonic?

Back 8

Reactions that produce more energy than they consume.

Front 9

The molecule that participates most often in

energy exchanges in living cells.

Back 9

What is ATP?

Front 10

How many molecule of ATP does a typical cell have?

Back 10

About a billion, each of which lasts less than a minute before being used.

Front 11

Consists of an adenine molecule, a ribose

molecule, and three phosphate groups bonded together.

Back 11

What is ATP composed of?

Front 12

What happens when the terminal phosphate group is split off ATP?

Back 12

Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and a phosphate group are formed.

Front 13

Energy from complex molecules is used in

catabolic reactions to__________?

Back 13

Combine ADP and a phosphate group to

resynthesizes ATP.

Front 14

About ___________ of the energy released in

catabolism is used for cellular functions. The rest is converted to heat.

Back 14

40%

Front 15

Where do we get the energy we need to break food down into macromolecules?

Back 15

From food!

Front 16

What happens when ATP loses a phosphate and becomes ADP?

Back 16

It releases usable chemical energy that can fuel

anabolism.

Front 17

What regulates catabolism and anabolism?

Back 17

Horomones

Front 18

There are two important aspects of energy

transfer:

Back 18

a) Oxidation-reduction reactions

b) Mechanisms of ATP generation

Front 19

The removal of electrons from an atom

molecule.

Back 19

What is oxidation?

Front 20

What is the result of oxidation?

Back 20

A decrease in the potential energy of the atom or molecule.

Front 21

What are dehydrogenation reactions?

Back 21

Because most biological oxidation reactions

involve the loss of hydrogen atoms they have also adopted this name.

Front 22

The addition of electrons to a molecule.

Back 22

What is reduction?

Front 23

Results in an increase in the potential energy of the molecule.

Back 23

What is reduction?

Front 24

What happens when a substance is oxidized?

Back 24

The liberated hydrogen atoms do not remain free in the cell but are transferred immediately by coenzymes to another compound.

Front 25

The process of oxidizing food molecules to make energy.

Back 25

What is cellular respiration?

Front 26

Has a positive charge

Back 26

What is a hydrogen ion?

Front 27

Has a negative charge

Back 27

What is a hydride ion?

Front 28

The addition of a phosphate group to a

molecule.

Back 28

What is phosphorylation?

Front 29

A coupled chemical reaction that directly

transfer a high energy phosphate group from a

substrate to ADP, producing ATP.

Back 29

What is substrate-level phosphorylation?

Front 30

Where does substrate-level phosphorylation take place?

Back 30

In the cytosol

Front 31

When does does substrate-level phosphorylation take place?

Back 31

During the 5th step of the KBC

Front 32

What happens during substrate-level

phosphorylation?

Back 32

The enzyme succinyl-C0A syntheses facilitates the production of ATP from saucily-C0A,

inorganic phosphate, and ADP.

Front 33

Removes electrons from organic compounds and passes them through a series of electron

acceptors, called electron transport chain, to

molecules of 02.

Back 33

What is oxidative phosphorylation?

Front 34

Where does oxidative phosphorylation take place?

Back 34

In the inner mitochondrial membrane of cells.

Front 35

How many units ATP are produce by oxidative phosphorylation?

Back 35

About 34

Front 36

How does oxidation phosphorylation stick a phosphate group onto a molecule of ADP?

Back 36

Uses the downward flow of electrons to pump hydrogen ions uphill.

Front 37

What else does oxidation phosphorylation use to produce ATP?

Back 37

Uses NADH and FADH2

Front 38

What is oxidation phosphorylation also known as?

Back 38

The electron transport chain.

Front 39

The final electron acceptor during oxidative phosphorylation.

Back 39

What is oxygen?

Front 40

What stage produces the most ATP?

Back 40

Oxidative phosphorylation or the electron

transport chain.

Front 41

Is the process through which a phosphate group is transferred from one molecule to a protein.

Back 41

What is phosphorylation?

Front 42

What is the common end pathway of aerobic

respiration?

Back 42

Phosphorylation

Front 43

What involves no hormonal or allosteric

(enzymes) control

Back 43

Again, phosphorylation

Front 44

Are hydrolyzed into the monosaccharides

glucose (80%), fructose, and galactose during the digestion of carbohydrates.

Back 44

What are both polysaccharides and

disaccharides?

Front 45

Convert most the remaining fructose and

practically all the galactose to glucose.

Back 45

What are hepatocytes?

Front 46

Maintain blood glucose at about 90 mb/100mL of plasma.

Back 46

What are negative feedback systems?

Front 47

A total of _______________ glucose normally

circulates in the blood.

Back 47

2-3 g

Front 48

The body's preferred source for synthesizing ATP.

Back 48

What is glucose?

Front 49

What is the fate of glucose?

Back 49

a) ATP production

b) Amino acid synthesis

c) Glycogen synthesis

d) Triglycerides synthesis

Front 50

Deposited in adipose tissue, which has virtually unlimited storage capacity.

Back 50

What are triglycerides?

Front 51

When glycogen storage areas are filled up,

hepatocytes can transform the glucose to glycerol and fatty acids that can be used for

lipogenesis.

Back 51

What is triglyceride synthesis?

Front 52

Hepatocytes and muscle fibres can perform glycogenesis, in which hundreds of glucose monomers are combined to form the

polysaccharide glycogen.

Back 52

What is glycogen synthesis?

Front 53

Cells throughout the body can use glucose to form several amino acids, which can then be

incorporated into proteins.

Back 53

What is amino acid synthesis?

Front 54

Glucose not needed for immediate ATP production can enter one of several other metabolic pathways. What are they ?

Back 54

Amino acid synthesis, glycogen synthesis,

triglyceride synthesis.

Front 55

Before glucose can be used by body cells, it must first do what?

Back 55

Pass through the plasma membrane and enter the cytosol.

Front 56

How does the GI tract absorb glucose?

Back 56

Glucose absorption is accomplished via secondary active transport (Na+ glucose

symporters).

Front 57

How does glucose enter into most other body cells?

Back 57

Via GluT molecules

Front 58

A family of transports that bring glucose into cells via facilitated diffusion.

Back 58

What are GluT molecules?

Front 59

A high level of insulin increases the insertion of one type of GluT, called _____________, into the plasma membrane thereby increasing the rate of diffusion of glucose into cells.

Back 59

GluT4

Front 60

What happens to glucose upon entering the cell?

Back 60

It becomes phosphorylated and because GluT cannot transport phosphorylated glucose-- it

remains trapped within the cell.

Front 61

Important aside about glucose---

Back 61

Glucose moves into most cells via facilitated

diffusion through glucose transporters and

becomes phosphorylated so that it cannot leave the cell.

Front 62

Glucose Catabolism involve what steps?

Back 62

1) Glycolysis, 2) Formation of acetyl coenzyme,

3) KBC, 4) Electron transport chain.

Front 63

Is a set of reaction in which one glucose

molecule is oxidized and two molecules of

pyruvic acid are produce.

Back 63

What is glycolysis?

Front 64

This reaction produces two molecules of ATP and two energy containing NADH+ and H+.

Back 64

Glycolysis

Front 65

Because glycolysis does not require oxygen, it is a way to produce ATP anaerobically

(without oxygen) and is known as ____________.

Back 65

Anaerobic cellular respiration

Front 66

Is a transition step that prepares pyruvic acid for entrance into the KBC.

Back 66

What is formation of acetyl coenzyme?

Front 67

This step also produces energy containing NADH+ H+, and a carbon dioxide.

Back 67

Formation of acetyl coenzyme

Front 68

Oxidize acetyl coenzyme A and produces C02, ATP, NADH+H+, and FADH2.

Back 68

What is KBC reaction?

Front 69

Oxidize NADH+H+ and FADH2 and transfer

electrons through a series of electron carriers.

Back 69

What is the electron transport chain?

Front 70

Both these reactions require oxygen to produce ATP and are collectively known as aerobic

cellular respiration.

Back 70

What are the KBC and electron transport chain?

Front 71

Cellular respiration has?

Back 71

Three phases: glycolysis, KBC, and then electron transport chain.

Front 72

Glucose and oxygen use cellular respiration to create __________ moles of ________________ and ________ mole of ___________________, plus ___________.

Back 72

6, C02, 6, H20, and energy

Front 73

What does glycolysis do to glucose?

Back 73

Takes it from a 6-carbon molecule and breaks it down into two 3-carbon molecules called

pyruvate.

Front 74

Glycolysis needs _______________ and

generates_________________. So it generates _____________________.

Back 74

2 ATPS, 4 ATPS, 2 ATPs "net".

Front 75

Electron transport chain produces the bulk of ATPS which is?

Back 75

34

Front 76

6-carbon glucose is split into two 3-carbon

molecules of glyceraldyde 3-phosphate.

Back 76

What is the investment phase of glycolysis?

Front 77

The enzyme that catalyzes the glyceraldehyde

3-phosphate, and is a key regulator in the rate of glycolysis.

Back 77

What is phosphofructokinase?

Front 78

The activity of this enzyme _______________ is high when ADP concentration is high, in which case ATP is produced rapidly.

Back 78

Phosphofructokinase

Front 79

What happens when phosphofructokinase is low?

Back 79

Glucose does not enter the reaction of glycolysis but instead goes into storage.

Front 80

What else does phosphofructokinase do?

Back 80

Determines the rate of chemical reactions

Front 81

What happens to pyruvate if oxygen is scares (i.e. anaerobic conditions)?

Back 81

It is reduced via an anaerobic pathway called fermentation by the addition of two hydrogen atoms to form lactic acid.

Front 82

What do hepatocytes do to lactic acid?

Back 82

Remove it from the blood and convert it back to pyruvic acid.

Front 83

What happens to pyruvate when oxygen is

plentiful (i.e. aerobic conditions)?

Back 83

It gets converted to acetyl coenzyme A

Front 84

This molecule links glycolysis, which occurs in the cytosol, with the KBC, which occurs in the matrix of the mitochondria.

Back 84

What is acetyl coenzyme A

Front 85

How does pyretic acid enter the mitochondria matrix?

Back 85

With the help of special transporter proteins.

Front 86

Because they lack mitochondria, ___________ can only produce ATP through glycolysis.

Back 86

RBCs

Front 87

What is coenzyme A (C0A) derived from?

Back 87

Pantothenic acid (a B vitamin)

Front 88

What happens during the transition step

between glycolysis and the KBC?

Back 88

Pyruvic acid is prepared for entrance into the KBC.

Front 89

What does the enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase do?

Back 89

Located exclusively in the mitochondria matrix, it converts pyretic acid to a 2-carbon fragment called acetyl group by removing a molecule of carbon.

Front 90

The loss of a molecule of C02 by a substance.

Back 90

What is decarboxylation?

Front 91

Decarboxylation is?

Back 91

The first reaction in cellular respiration that

RELEASES C02.

Front 92

Result in the reduction of NAD+ to NADH+H+. For each molecule of glucose, 2 molecules of C02 are lost and two NADH+H+ are produced.

Back 92

What is the formation of acetyl coenzyme A?

Front 93

Acetyle coenzyme is formed by?

Back 93

Converting pyruvate to an acetyl group and adding coenzyme A.

Front 94

The citric acid cycle

Back 94

What is the Krebs cycle?

Front 95

The KBC takes place where?

Back 95

Occurs in the matrix of the mitochondria and consists of a series of oxidation-reduction reactions and decarboxylation reactions that release C02.

Front 96

What are the most important outcome of the KBC?

Back 96

The reduced coenzymes (NADH & FADH2) because they contain the energy originally stored in the glucose and then in pyruvic acid.

Front 97

End result of KBC?

Back 97

C02, NADH, and FADH2

Front 98

What happens to pyruvate before it enters the KBC?

Back 98

It needs to be oxidized

Front 99

What happens during pyruvate oxidation?

Back 99

It cleaves a carbon off the pyruvate called acetyl

CoA (a 2-carbon compound). Also reduces some NAD+ to NADH.

Front 100

What is considered the preparation step for KBC?

Back 100

Oxidation of pyruvate and formation of acetyl CoA.

Front 101

Catalyzed by enzymes, _____________ merges with

____________________ (a 4 carbon molecule) and they form _________________ (a 6-carbon

molecule).

Back 101

Acetyle CoA, oxaloacetic acid, citric acid

Front 102

The whole process produces 6 C02 that enter into the blood to be exhaled.

Back 102

What is the KBC?

Front 103

A series of electron carriers, integral membrane proteins in the inner mitochondria membrane.

Back 103

What is the electron transport chain?

Front 104

This is folded into crust that increase its surface area, accommodating thousands of copies of the transport chain in each mitochondria.

Back 104

What is the mitochondria membrane?

Front 105

ATP is produced when hydrogen ions diffuse back into the mitochondria matrix.

Back 105

What is chemiosmosis?

Front 106

Energy from NADH+H+ passes along ETC and is used to pump H+ from the matrix into the space between the inner and outer mitochondria.

Back 106

What is a proton pump?

Front 107

Flavin monoucleotide (FMN)?

Back 107

Is a flavoprotein derived from riboflavin (vitamin B2).

Front 108

Cytochromes?

Back 108

Are proteins with an iron-containing group (heme) capable of existing alternately in a

reduced form.

Front 109

What are the electron carriers?

Back 109

Flavin mononucleotides, cytochromes, iron-

sulfur centers, copper atoms, and coenzyme Q.

Front 110

Iron-sulfur (Fe-S) centres?

Back 110

Contain either two or four iron atoms bound to sulfur atoms that form an electron transfer

centre within a protein.

Front 111

Copper (Cu) atoms?

Back 111

Bond to two proteins in the chain also participate in electron transfer.

Front 112

Coenzyme Q?

Back 112

Is a non-protien, low molecular-weight, carrier that is mobile in the lipid layer of the inner

membrane.

Front 113

Each turn of the KBC will eventually yield?

Back 113

12 molecules of ATP

Front 114

Liberation of C02 occurs as___________?

Back 114

Pyretic acid is converted to acetyl CoA and

during the the two decarboxylation reactions of the KBC.

Front 115

For every glucose molecule metabolized_____?

Back 115

6 C02 molecules are produced.

Front 116

What happens to the molecules of C02?

Back 116

They diffuse out of the mitochondria, through the cytosol and plasma membrane, and then into the blood. Blood transports C02 to the lungs, where it is eventually exhaled.

Front 117

KBC involves?

Back 117

The decarboxylation, and oxidation and

reduction of organic acids.

Front 118

During KBC what is produced?

Back 118

3 molecules of C02, 4 molecules of NADH, 4

hydrogen ions, 1 molecule of FADH2, and 1

molecule of ATP.

Front 119

The carriers of the electron transport chain are clustered into 3 complexes.

Back 119

What is within the inner mitochondrial

membrane?

Front 120

Step three of ETC___________.

Back 120

Oxygen is used to help form H20, is the only time in aerobic cellular respiration where 02 is consumed.

Front 121

The pumping of H+ produces___________.

Back 121

Both a concentration gradient of protons and an electrical gradient.

Front 122

What happens with the build up of H+?

Back 122

It makes one side of the inner mitochondrial membrane positively charged compared with the other side.

Front 123

NADH degydrogenase complex, cytochrome

b-c1, and cytochrome oxidase complex.

Back 123

What are the proton pumps in the mitochondria membrane?

Front 124

As H+ flow back, they generate ATP because the H+ channels also include an enzyme.

Back 124

What is ATP synthase?

Front 125

The concentration gradient created by the buildup of H+ has potential energy called____________.

Back 125

Proton Motive force

Front 126

Each NADH is going to be directly responsible for the production of __________________.

*(ETC/chemiosmotic)

Back 126

3 ATP

Front 127

Each FADH2 will be indirectly responsible for the production of ________________________.

*(ETC/chemiosmotic)

Back 127

2 ATP

Front 128

What is the first step in ETC?

Back 128

NADH gets oxidized and produces NAD+ + H+ +2e. NADH loses 2 electrons.

Front 129

What is the last step in ETC?

Back 129

You have 2e + H+ + 1 02 atom= H20 (

this is the reduction of oxygen to water).

Front 130

A polysaccharide that is the only stored form of carbohydrate.

Back 130

What is glycogen?

Front 131

The hormone insulin, from pancreatic cells,

stimulates hepatocytes and skeletal muscle cells to carry out_____________________.

Back 131

Glycogenesis (the synthesis of glycogen)

Front 132

The body can store about ____________ of

glycogen, with roughly _______________ in skeletal muscle fibres and the rest in liver cells.

Back 132

500g, 75%

Front 133

The process of splitting glycogen into its glucose

subunits.

Back 133

What is glycogenolysis?

Front 134

What is the first step of glycogenolysis?

Back 134

Splitting glucose molecules off the branched glycogen molecule via phosphorylation to form

glucose 1-phosphate.

Front 135

What is the enzyme that catalyzes

glycogenolysis?

Back 135

Phosporylase, is activated by glucagon from

pancreatic alpha cells and epinephrine from the adrenal medulla.

Front 136

What happens when body activities require ATP?

Back 136

Glycogen stored in hepatocytes is broken down into glucose and release into the blood to be transported to cells, where it will be catabolized by the process of cellular respiration. This process of accessing glycogen stored in

hepatocytes is called glycogenolysis.

Front 137

During glycogenolysis glucose 1-phosphate is converted to____________________.

Back 137

Glucose 6-phosphate and finally to glucose which leaves hepatocytes via glucose

transporters (GluT) in the plasma membrane.

Front 138

What should you do when your liver runs low on glycogen?

Back 138

EAT!

Front 139

What happens if you run low on glycogen and don't eat?

Back 139

Your body starts catabolizing triglycerides and proteins.

Front 140

The process by which glucose is formed from noncarbohydrate sources is called____________.

Back 140

Gluconeogenesis

Front 141

Your body will do this sometimes but it happens large scale when you are starving, eating very few carbohydrates, or suffering from an

endocrine disorder.

Back 141

What is gluconeogenesis?

Front 142

About _______________ of the amino acids found in the body can be used for gluconeogenesis.

Back 142

60%

Front 143

What happens to lactic acid and amino acids during gluconeogenesis?

Back 143

They are converted to pyruvic acid, which then may be synthesized into glucose or enter the KBC.

Front 144

What happens to glycerol during

gluconeogenesis?

Back 144

It may be converted into glyceraldhyde 3-

phosphate, which may form pyruvic acid or be used to synthesize glucose.

Front 145

To be transported in watery blood, what must happen to lipids?

Back 145

Such molecules first must be made more water soluble by combining them with proteins produced by the liver and intestine.

Front 146

Spherical particles with an outer shell of

proteins, phospholipids, and cholesterol

molecules surrounding an inner core of

triglycerides.

Back 146

What is a lipoprotein?

Front 147

What happens when you hydorlosize ATP?

Back 147

It loses a phosphate group and becomes ADP

Front 148

What does ATP mean?

Back 148

Adenosine triphosphate

Front 149

What does ADP mean?

Back 149

Adenosine diphosphate

Front 150

What does hydrolysis mean?

Back 150

Mixing with H20

Front 151

Energy in a chemical reaction is all ways

generated when?

Back 151

Electrons are going to a lower energy state (i.e. ATP loses phosphate and generates ADP + 1 phosphate + energy)

Front 152

Glucose breaks down into what when you look at just the concept of cellular respiration?

Back 152

6C02 + 6 H20 + energy

Front 153

What happens with the energy produced by

cellular respiration?

Back 153

It produces heat and 38 ATP

Front 154

First stage of cellular respiration?

Back 154

1) Glycolysis- breaking up glucose

(6 carbon molecule-- 2 3 carbon molecules)

Front 155

Glycolysis is called the ___________________

respiration.

Back 155

Anaerobic

Front 156

What is the second stage of cellular respiration?

Back 156

Krebs cycle (needs oxygen)

Front 157

Third stage of cellular respiration?

Back 157

Electron transport chain which produces the bulk of ATP and requires oxygen.

Front 158

Which stage of cellular respiration is considered the "investment stage"?

Back 158

Glycolysis because you use 2 ATP to get 4 ATP.

Front 159

What do you have at the end of glycolysis?

Back 159

2 ATP (net) and 2 NADH

Front 160

Where does glycolysis occur?

Back 160

In the cytoplasm of a cell

Front 161

What happens to the pyruvate before it enters into the KBC?

Back 161

It needs to be oxidized into a two-carbon (which means carbon "back-bone") substance called Acetyl CoA.

Front 162

Major cation in intracellular fluid.

Back 162

What is potassium?

Front 163

__________________ is needed for generation and conduction of action potentials in neutrons and muscle fibres.

Back 163

K+ (potassium)

Front 164

Most abundant mineral in the body. Appears in combination with phosphates.

Back 164

What is calcium?

Front 165

Component of many proteins, electron carriers in ETC, and some vitamins.

Back 165

What is sulfur?

Front 166

Most abundant cation ion in extracellular fluids.

Back 166

What is sodium?

Front 167

__________________ strongly affects distribution of water through osmosis. Part of the bicarbonate buffer system.

Back 167

Na+ (sodium)

Front 168

Major anion in extracellular fluid.

Back 168

What is chloride?

Front 169

______________ has a role in acid-base balance of blood, water balance, and formation of HCl in stomach.

Back 169

Cl- (chloride)

Front 170

Important cation in intracellular fluid.

Back 170

What is magnesium?

Front 171

About 66% found in hemoglobin of blood.

Back 171

What is iron?

Front 172

_______________________ is a component of

hemoglobin, reversibly binds 02. Is a component of cytochromes involved in ETC.

Back 172

Iron (Fe)

Front 173

Required with iron for synthesis of hemoglobin. Component of coenzymes in ETC. Some stored in liver and spleen. Most excreted in feces.

Back 173

What is copper?

Front 174

Essential for absorption of calcium and

phosphorus from GI tract. Works with

parathyroid hormone (PTH) to maintain Ca2+

homeostasis.

Back 174

What is vitamin D?

Front 175

Inhibits catabolism of certain fatty acids that help form cell structures, especially membranes. Involved in formation of DNA, RNA, and red blood cells.

Back 175

What is vitamin E?

Front 176

Coenzyme essential for synthesis of several clotting factors by liver, including prothrombin.

Back 176

What is vitamin K?

Front 177

Maintains general health of epithelial cells. Beta‐carotene acts as antioxidant to inactivate free radicals. Essential for formation of light‐

sensitive pigments in photoreceptors of retina. Aids in growth of bones and teeth by helping to regulate activity of osteoblasts and osteoclasts.

Back 177

What is vitamin A?

Front 178

Acts as coenzyme for many different enzymes that break carbon‐to‐carbon bonds and are

involved in carbohydrate metabolism of pyruvic acid to CO2 and H2O. Essential for synthesis of neurotransmitter acetylcholine.

Back 178

What is vitamin B1 (thiamine)?

Front 179

Component of certain coenzymes (for example, FAD and FMN) in carbohydrate and protein

metabolism, especially in cells of eye,

integument, mucosa of intestine, and blood.

Back 179

What is vitamin B2 (riboflavin)?

Front 180

Essential component of NAD and NADP,

coenzymes in oxidation‐reduction reactions. In lipid metabolism, inhibits production of cholesterol and assists in triglyceride breakdown.

Back 180

What is niacin?

Front 181

Essential coenzyme for normal amino acid

metabolism. Assists production of circulating

antibodies.

Back 181

What is vitamin B6?

Front 182

Coenzyme necessary for red blood cell

formation, formation of amino acid methionine, entrance of some amino acids into Krebs cycle, and manufacture of choline (used to synthesize acetylcholine).

Back 182

What is vitamin b12?

Front 183

What minerals are constituents of coenzymes?

Back 183

Calcium, iron, and magnesium

Front 184

Vitamin D deficiency can cause?

Back 184

Rickets and osteomalacia

Front 185

__________________ is a mineral that serves as an antioxidant, prevents chromosome damage, and may play a role in preventing birth defects.

Back 185

Selenium

Front 186

_____________________ is the only B vitamin not found in vegetables, the only vitamin requiring intrinsic factor for proper absorption, and the

vitamin necessary for RBC formation.

Back 186

B12