Anatomy Midterm 2

Front 1

-alternation contraction and relaxation of cells
-chemical energy (ATP) changed into mechanical energy (movement)

Back 1

Muscular Tissue

Front 2

oattaches to bone, skin, fascia
ostriated with light & dark bands visible with scope
ovoluntary control of contraction & relaxation

Back 2

1.Skeletal Muscle

Front 3

ostriated in appearance ( cardiac is branched)
oinvoluntary control
oautorhythmic bec of built in pacemaker (intercalated disc, specialized gap junction found in cardiac muscle), rapid spread of depolarization (contraction)

Back 3

2.Cardiac Muscle

Front 4

oattached to hair follicles in skin
oin walls of hollow organs – blood vessels & GI
ononstriated in appearance
oinvoluntary

Back 4

3.Smooth Muscle

Front 5

• Functions of muscular tissue

Back 5

1.Producing body movements
2.Stabilizing body positions
3.Regulating organ volumes (bands of smooth muscle called sphincters (regulate food, BV-shrinks & dilate)
4.Movement of substances within the body (blood, lymph, urine, air, food, fluids & sperm)
5.Producing heat (involuntary contractions of skeletal muscle (shivering))

Front 6

Properties of muscular tissue that respond to chemicals released from nerve cells

Back 6

Excitability –

Front 7

Properties of muscular tissue that has ability to propagate electrical signals over membrane

Back 7

Conductivity –

Front 8

Properties of muscular tissue that has ability to shorten and generate force

Back 8

Contractility –

Front 9

Properties of muscular tissue that has ability to be stretched without damaging the tissue

Back 9

Extensibility –

Front 10

Properties of muscular tissue that has ability to return to original shape after being stretched

Back 10

Elasticity –

Front 11

: loose connective tissue & fat underlying the skin

Back 11

Superficial fascia

Front 12

: dense irregular connective tissue around muscle

Back 12

-deep fascia

Front 13

: surrounds the whole muscle

Back 13

-epimysium

Front 14

: surrounds bundles ( fascicles) of 10-100 muscle cells

Back 14

-perimysium

Front 15

: separates individuals muscle cells

Back 15

-endomysium

Front 16

- all these connective tissue layers extend beyond the muscle belly to form the
tendon

Back 16

Tendon

Front 17

– In indirect attachments, the muscle’s connective tissue wrappings extend beyond the muscle either as a ropelike tendon or as a sheet-like aponeurosis. The tendon or aponeurosis anchors the muscle to the connective tissue covering of a skeletal elements (bone or cartilage) or the fascia of other muscles.

Back 17

aponeurosis

Front 18

Nerve and Blood Supply
* Each skeletal muscle is supplied by a nerve, artery and two veins. Each motor neuron supplies multiple muscle cells (NMJ). Each muscle cell is supplied by one motor neuron terminal branch and is in contact with one or two capillaries (nerve fibers & capillaries are found in the endomysium bet individual cells)

Back 18

True

Front 19

o Development of skeletal muscle fibers – fusion of myoblasts
- each mature muscle cell developed from100 myoblasts that fuse together in the fetus (multinucleated)
- mature muscle cells can not divide (muscle death = death)
- muscle growth is a result of cellular enlargement & not cell dividsion (size)
- satellite cells retain the ability to regenerate new cells

Back 19

True

Front 20

– increase in the diameter of muscle fibers, resulting from very forceful, repetitive muscular activity and an increase in myofibrils, SR & mitochondria

Back 20

hypertrophy

Front 21

- An abnormal increase in the number of cells in an organ or a tissue with consequent enlargement.

Back 21

hyperplasia

Front 22

cells that are long, cylindrical & multinucleated

Back 22

muscle cells

Front 23

-: muscle cell membrane

Back 23

Sarcolemma

Front 24

: filled with tiny threads called myofibrils & myoglobin (red-colored, oxygen-binding
protein)

Back 24

- sarcoplasm

Front 25

: invaginations of the sarcolemma into the center of the cell (filled with
extracellular fluid, carry muscle action potential down into cell)

Back 25

-T (transverse) tubules

Front 26

: muscle fibers are filled with thread called myofibrils separated by SR

Back 26

myofibrils

Front 27

: system of tubular sacs to similar to smooth ER in nonmuscle cells,
Stores Ca2+ in a relaxed muscle, release of Ca2+ triggers muscle contraction

Back 27

- sarcoplasmic reticulum

Front 28

: compartments separated by Z discs

Back 28

- sarcomeres

Front 29

: actin, troponin, tropomyosin

Back 29

- thin filaments

Front 30

: myosin

Back 30

- thick filaments

Front 31

: sarcomere

Back 31

- Z discs

Front 32

: region with only thick filaments (including area overlapping with thin filament)

Back 32

- A band

Front 33

: region with only thick filament

Back 33

- H zone

Front 34

region with only thin filament

Back 34

- I band:

Front 35

: (Figure 10.3) regulatory protein; helps hold thick filament in place

Back 35

- M line

Front 36

o Muscle proteins – 3 types

Back 36

contractile, regulatory, structural

Front 37

:contractile -

Back 37

myosin & actin

Front 38

regulatory – turn on & off contraction –

Back 38

troponin & tropomyosin

Front 39

:structural – provides proper alignment, elasticity & extensibility –

Back 39

titin, myomesin, nebulin, dystrophin

Front 40

– anchors thick filament to the M line and the Z disc, portion of the molecule between the Z disc
and the end of the thick filament can stretch to 4 times its resting length and spring back
unharmed, role in recovery of the muscle from being stretched

Back 40

Titin

Front 41

– myoneural junctions – end of axon nears the surface of a muscle fiber at its motor end plate region ( remainin separated by synaptic cleft or gap)

Back 41

NMJ

Front 42

are swelling of axon terminals

Back 42

-synaptic end bulbs

Front 43

contain synaptic vesicles filled with Ach

Back 43

- end bulbs

Front 44

membrane contains 30 million Ach receptors

Back 44

- motor end plate

Front 45

is the name given to a single alpha motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it activates (neurophysiologists use the term innervates).

Back 45

A motor unit

Front 46

Sliding Filament Theory

Back 46

1. Nerve Impulse -> muscle
2. SR releases calcium
3. CA binds w/ troponin-tropomyosin complex (thin filaments)
4. Troponin-tropomyosin undergoes conformational changes -> means change shape
5. Troponon-tropomyosin moves off of myosin-binding site on the actin
6. Myosin heads binds to myosin-binding site on the actin
7. Power stroke – myosin heads move thin filaments toward each other (center)
8. Myosin heads detach from actin
9. Troponin-tropomyosin complex covers actin
10. relaxation

Front 47

Muscle Contraction

Back 47

1.AP in neuron
2.Vesicles w/ AcH released into synaptic cleft
3.AcH binds to AcH receptors on the muscle
4.Ca is released from SR
5.Ca binds with troponin-tropomyosin complex
6.troponin-tropomyosin complex changes shape & exposes myosin-binding site on the actin
7.Myosin heads bind to myosin-binding site on the actin
8.Power stroke
9.Relaxation

Front 48

– (plant poison from poison arrows) causes muscle paralysis by blocking the ACh receptors; used to relax muscle during surgery

Back 48

Curare

Front 49

– blocks release of NT’s at the NMJ so muscle contraction can’t occur (bacteria found in improperly canned food, death occurs from paralysis of the diaphragm)

Back 49

Botulinum toxin

Front 50

– (anticholinesterase agent) – blocks removal of Ach from receptors so strengthens weak muscle contraction of myasthenia gravis, also an antidote for curare after surgery is finished.

Back 50

Neostigmine

Front 51

- involuntary contraction of a small number of motor units (alternatively active and inactive in a constantly shifting pattern) – keeps muscles firm even though relaxed, doesn’t produce movement

Back 51

o Muscle Tone

Front 52

- essential for maintaining posture (head upright)

Back 52

o Muscle Tone

Front 53

- important in maintaining blood pressure (tone of smooth muscle in walls of blood vessels)

Back 53

o Muscle Tone

Front 54

o Types of Muscle fibers –

Back 54

slow oxidative, fast oxidative-glycolytic, fast glycolytic

Front 55

muscle fiber that is red in color (lots of mitochondria, myoglobin & blood vessels); prolonged, sustained contractions for maintaining posture

Back 55

slow oxidative (slow twitch)

Front 56

muscle fiber – (walking/sprinting) – split ATP at very fast rate

Back 56

fast oxidative-glycolytic (fast-twitch A)

Front 57

muscle fiber that is white in color (few mitochondria & BV, low myoglobin) – anaerobic movements for short duration, used for weight-lifting

Back 57

fast glycolytic (fast-twitch B)

Front 58

-striated, short, quadrangular-shaped, branching fibers
-single centrally located nucleus
-cells connected by intercalated discs with gap junctions
-same arrangement of thick & thin filaments as skeletal
-containing thick & thin filaments, T tubules located at Z discs & less SR

Back 58

• Cardiac muscle tissue

Front 59

- beat with each own, contract without stimulation
- contracts 75 times/min & needs lots of O2
- larger mitochondria generate ATP aerobically
- sustained contraction possible due to slow Ca2+ delivery ( Ca2+ channels to the extracellular fluid stay open)

Back 59

o Autorhythmicity

Front 60

the plasma membrane of adjacent cardiac cells interlock like the ribs of two sheets of corrugated cardboard at dark-staining junctions called

Back 60

intercalated disc.

Front 61

These disc contain anchoring desmosomes and gap junctions. The desmosomes prevent adjacent cells from separating during contraction and the gap junctions allow ions to pass from cell to cell, transmitting a depolarizing current across the entire heart. Because cardiac cells are electrically coupled by the gap junctions, the entire myocardium behaves as a single coordinated unit, or functional syncytium.

Back 61

intercalated disc.

Front 62

o Differences between skeletal and cardiac muscle

Back 62

- more sarcoplasm and mitochondria (cardiac)
- larger transverse tubules located at Z discs rather than at A-I band junctions
- less well-developed SR
- limited intracellular Ca2+ reserves ( more Ca2+ enters cell from ECF during contraction)
- prolonged delivery of Ca2+ to sarcoplasm, produces a contraction that last 10-15 times longer than in
skeletal muscle

Front 63

• Smooth muscle tissue

Back 63

Visceral (single-unit) and multi-unit

Front 64

– in the walls of hollow viscera & small BV; autorhythmic, gap junctions cause fibers
to contract in unison

Back 64

- Visceral (single-unit)

Front 65

– individual fibers with own motor neuron ending, found in large arteries, large airways, arrector
pili muscles, iris & ciliary body

Back 65

- multiunit

Front 66

-cells of the body are serviced by 2 fluids (blood & interstitial fluid)

Back 66

true

Front 67

– composed of plasma and a variety of cells, transport nutrients & wastes

Back 67

blood

Front 68

– surrounds all cells, maintaining ions

Back 68

interstitial fluid

Front 69

-nutrients and oxygen diffuse from the blood into the interstitial fluid & then into the cells
-wastes move in the reverse direction

Back 69

true

Front 70

-– is study of blood and blood disorders

Back 70

hematology

Front 71

• Functions of the blood

Back 71

Transportation –
Regulation –
protection

Front 72

Transportation –

Back 72

O2, CO2, metabolic wastes, nutrients, heat & hormones

Front 73

Regulation –

Back 73

helps regulate pH thru buffers; helps regulate body temp. (coolant properties of water,
vasodilatation of surface vessels dump heat
- helps regulate water content of cells by interactions with dissolved ions and proteins

Front 74

protection

Back 74

from disease& loss of blood

Front 75

Functions of the Blood

Back 75

Transport of dissolved gases, nutrients, hormones, metabolic waste
Regulation of pH and electrolytes
Restriction of fluid loss during injury
Defense against toxins and pathogens

Front 76

• Basic physical characteristics of the blood

Back 76

-thicker (more viscous) than water and flows more slowly than water
-temp. of 100.4 F
-pH 7.4 (7.35 – 7.45)
-8% of total body weight
-Blood volume ( 5 to 6 liters in average male, 4 to 5 liters in average female, hormonal negative feedback systems maintain constant blood volume and osmotic pressure)

Front 77

is a measure of the percent of whole blood occupied by RBC’s

Back 77

Hematocrit

Front 78

Hematocrit

Back 78

-55% plasma
-45% cells ( 99% RBC, <1% WBC and platelets)

Front 79

Blood Plasma

Back 79

-over 90% water
-7% plasma proteins (created in liver, confined to bloodstream)
-2% other substances (electrolytes, nutrients, hormones, gases, waste products)

Front 80

3 main plasma proteins

Back 80

Albumin
Globulins
fibrinogen

Front 81

(maintain blood osmotic pressure)

Back 81

Albumin

Front 82

– antibodies bind to foreign substances called antigens; form antigen-antibody complexes

Back 82

Globulins (immunoglobulins)

Front 83

– for clotting

Back 83

fibrinogen

Front 84

-Red blood cells ( erythrocytes) RBC contains hemoglobin which combines with oxygen (oxyhemoglobin) and carbon dioxide (carbaminohemoglobin)
-Each RBC is biconcave which allows more surface area for the transport of oxygen

Back 84

true

Front 85

-RBC synthesis is called

Back 85

erythropoiesis

Front 86

-In adults this occurs in the Red bone marrow
-Mostly in axial skeleton, pelvic girdle, pectoral girdle, and proximal epiphyses of humerus and femur
-After about 120 days the RBC will rupture or is engulfed by phagocytes
-Either way it is destroyed
-If the RBC ruptures the hemoglobin is excreted by the kidneys
-If it is engulfed by a phagocyte the protein portion is recycled

Back 86

erythropoiesis

Front 87

-White blood cells (leukocytes)

Back 87

Granular leukocytes
Agranular Leukocytes

Front 88

Granular leukocytes

Back 88

-Neutrophils
-Eosinophils
-Basophils

Front 89

Agranular Leukocytes

Back 89

-lymphocytes = T cells, B cells, and natural killer cells
-monocytes

Front 90

– Highly mobile and generally the first WBCs to arrive at a site of injury.
Specialize in attacking and digesting bacteria that have been "marked" for destruction.
Lifespan of about 6hrs to a few days.

Back 90

neutrophil

Front 91

Function: fastest response of all WBCs to bacteria. Direct action against bacteria, release lysozymes
which destroy/digest bacteria, release defensin proteins that act like antibiotics & poke holes in bacterial
cell walls destroying them, release strong oxidants (bleach-like, strong chemicals) that destroy bacteria

Back 91

neutrophil

Front 92

– Phagocytize antibody-coated bacteria, protozoa, and cellular debris.
–Exocytose toxic compounds onto the surface of pathogens, particularly large multicellular parasites such as flukes or parasitic worms.
They increase in # dramatically during a parasitic infection.
Also sensitive to allergens and increase in # during allergic reactions as well.
Typical lifespan of 8-12 days

Back 92

eisonophils

Front 93

Function: Leave capillaries to enter tissue fluid
• Release histaminase
– slows down inflammation caused by basophils
• Attack parasitic worms
• Phagocytize antibody-antigen complexes

Back 93

eisonophils

Front 94

- Smaller than eosinophils and neutrophils.
Contain granules that appear deep purple or blue.
Migrate to injury sites and discharge the contents of their granules:
Histamine - Vasodilator and increaser of capillary permeability.
Heparin - An anticoagulant.
These 2 chemicals enhance the local inflammation initiated by mast cells and attract other WBCs.
Lifespan is not certain.

Back 94

Basophils (Granulocyte)

Front 95

Function: • Involved in inflammatory and allergy reactions
• Leave capillaries & enter connective tissue as mast cells
• Release heparin, histamine & serotonin – heighten the inflammatory response and account for hypersensitivity (allergic) reaction

Back 95

Basophils (Granulocyte)

Front 96

- Circulating blood contains 2 main classes of lymphocytes:
–T Lymphocytes: Defend against foreign cells and tissues and coordinate the immune response.
–B Lymphocytes: Produce and distribute antibodies - proteins that attack foreign molecules.

Back 96

Lymphocyte (Agranulocyte)

Front 97

Functions: B cells – destroy bacteria and their toxins – turn into plasma cells that produces antibodies
• T cells – attack viruses, fungi, transplanted organs, cancer cells & some bacteria
• Natural killer cells – attack many different microbes & some tumor cells destroy foreign invaders by direct – attack

Back 97

Lymphocyte (Agranulocyte)

Front 98

- • Individual monocytes use the bloodstream as a highway, staying in the circulation for only about 24hrs before an entering peripheral tissues to become a tissue macrophage, an aggressive phagocyte. Lifespan can be up to several months

Back 98

Monocyte (Agranulocyte)

Front 99

Functions: Take longer to get to site of infection, but arrive in larger numbers
• Become wandering macrophages, once they leave the capillaries
• Destroy microbes and clean up dead tissue following an infection

Back 99

Monocyte

Front 100

percentage of blood occupied by cells
- female normal range (38-46%; average 42%)
- male normal range (40-54%; average 46%); testosterone

Back 100

hematocrit

Front 101

- – not enough RBCs or not enough hemoglobin

Back 101

anemia

Front 102

– too many RBCs (over 65%), dehydration, tissue, hypoxia, blood doping in athletes

Back 102

polycythemia

Front 103

Erythropoietin(EPO) – where is it secreted and what does it do?

Back 103

- produced by the kidneys increase RBC precursors

Front 104

– hormone from liver stimulates platelet formation

Back 104

Thrombopoietin (TBO)

Front 105

– local hormones of bone marrow (produced by some marrow cells to stimulate proliferation in other
marrow cells, colony-stimulating factor (CSF) & interleukin stimulate WBC production

Back 105

Cytokines

Front 106

- process of blood cells formation is hematopoiesis or hemopoiesis

Back 106

Hemopoiesis

Front 107

(Formation of Blood Cells)

Back 107

- most blood cells types need to be continually replaced ( die within hours, days or weeks)
- in the embryo (occurs in yolk sac, liver, spleen, thymus, lymph nodes & red bone marrow)
- in adult (occurs only in red marrow of flat bones like sternum, ribs, skull & pelvis and ends of long bones

Front 108

- contains oxygen-carrying protein hemoglobin that gives blood its red color (1/3 of cell’s weight is
hemoglobin)

Back 108

RBC

Front 109

biconcave disk 8 microns in diameter (increased surface area/volume ratio, flexible shape for narrow
Passages, no nucleus or other organelles) ; no cell division or mitochondrial ATP formation

Back 109

RBC

Front 110

- normal RBC count (male 5.4 million/drop --- female 4.8 million/drop; new RBCs enter circulation at 2
million/sec

Back 110

RBC

Front 111

– globin protein consisting of 4 polypeptide chains, one heme pigment attached to each polypeptide
Chain (each heme contains an iron ion (FE+2) that can combine reversibly with one oxygen molecule

Back 111

Hemoglobin

Front 112

RBC Life Cycle

Back 112

- RBCs live only 120 days (wear out from bending to fit thru capillaries, no repair possible due to lack of
organelles)
- Worn out cells removed by fixed macrophages in spleen & liver
- breakdown products are recycled

Front 113

starts to produce hemoglobin

Back 113

Proerythroblast

Front 114

Production of RBCs

Back 114

- Proerythroblast starts to produce hemoglobin
- many steps later nucleus is ejected & a reticulocyte is formed (orange in color with traces of visible
rough ER)
- reticulocytes escape from bone marrow into the blood
- in 1-2 days, they eject the remaining organelles to become a mature RBC

Front 115

ABO Blood Groups

Back 115

•Based on 2 glycolipid isoantigens called A and B found on the surface of RBCs
–display only antigen A -- blood type A
–display only antigen B -- blood type B
–display both antigens A & B -- blood type AB
–display neither antigen -- blood type O
•Plasma contains isoantibodies or agglutinins to the A or B antigens not found in your blood
–anti-A antibody reacts with antigen A
–anti-B antibody reacts with antigen B

Front 116

RH blood groups

Back 116

•Antigen was discovered in blood of Rhesus monkey
•People with Rh agglutinogens on RBC surface are Rh+. Normal plasma contains no anti-Rh antibodies
•Antibodies develop only in Rh- blood type & only with exposure to the antigen
–transfusion of positive blood
–during a pregnancy with a positive blood type fetus
•Transfusion reaction upon 2nd exposure to the antigen results in hemolysis of the RBCs in the donated blood

Front 117

- All WBCs (leukocytes) have nucleus and no hemoglobin

Back 117

true

Front 118

Disc-shaped, 2 - 4 micron cell fragment with no nucleus
• Normal platelet count is 150,000-400,000/drop of blood
• Other blood cell counts 5 million red & 5- 10,000 white blood cells

Back 118

platelets

Front 119

Platelets form in bone marrow by following steps:

Back 119

– myeloid stem cells to megakaryocyte-colony forming cells to megakaryoblast to megakaryocytes whose cell fragments form platelets
• Short life span (5 to 9 days in bloodstream) – formed in bone marrow – few days in circulating blood
– aged ones removed by fixed macrophages in liver and spleen

Front 120

Detection of changes in numbers of circulating – indicates infection, poisoning, leukemia, chemotherapy,
parasites or allergy reaction

Back 120

• Bone marrow transplants

Front 121

– oxygen-carrying capacity of blood is reduced
– fatigue, cold intolerance & paleness
• lack of O2 for ATP & heat production

Back 121

Anemia

Front 122

type of anemia that lack of absorption or iron loss of iron

Back 122

iron-deficiency

Front 123

anemia that lack of intrinsic factor for B12 absorption

Back 123

pernicious

Front 124

anemia that loss of RBCs due to bleeding (ulcer)

Back 124

hemorrhagic

Front 125

anemia that defects in cell membranes cause rupture

Back 125

hemolytic

Front 126

anemia= hereditary deficiency of hemoglobin

Back 126

thalassemia

Front 127

anemia = destruction of bone marrow (radiation/toxins)

Back 127

aplastic

Front 128

• Genetic defect in hemoglobin molecule (Hb-S) that changes 2 amino acids
– at low very O2 levels, RBC is deformed by changes in hemoglobin molecule within the RBC
• sickle-shaped cells rupture easily = causing anemia & clots
• Found among populations in malaria belt
– Mediterranean Europe, sub-Saharan Africa & Asia
• Person with only one sickle cell gene
– increased resistance to malaria because RBC membranes leak K+ & lowered levels of K+ kill the parasite infecting the red blood cells

Back 128

Sickle-cell Disease

Front 129

Inherited deficiency of clotting factors
– bleeding spontaneously or after minor trauma
– subcutaneous & intramuscular hemorrhaging
– nosebleeds, blood in urine, articular bleeding & pain
• Hemophilia A lacks factor VIII (males only)
– most common
• Hemophilia B lacks factor IX (males only)
• Hemophilia C (p males & females)
– less severe because alternate clotting activator exists
• Treatment is transfusions of fresh plasma or concentrates of the missing clotting factor

Back 129

Hemophilia

Front 130

– uncontrolled production of immature leukocytes
– crowding out of normal red bone marrow cells by production of immature WBC
– prevents production of RBC & platelets

Back 130

Acute leukemia

Front 131

– accumulation of mature WBC in bloodstream because they do not die
– classified by type of WBC that is predominant--- monocytic, lymphocytic.

Back 131

• Chronic leukemia

Front 132

• Heart pumps over 1 million gallons per year
• Over 60,000 miles of blood vessels

Back 132

true

Front 133

heart location

Back 133

mediastinum – from the sternum to the vertebral area column and between the lungs

Front 134

Hear Orientation
- anteriorly, inferiorly and to directed the left

Back 134

• Apex

Front 135

Hear Orientation
- directed posteriorly, superiorly and to the right

Back 135

• Base

Front 136

Hear Orientation
- deep to the sternum and ribs

Back 136

• Anterior surface

Front 137

Hear Orientation
- rests on the diaphragm

Back 137

• Inferior surface

Front 138

Hear Orientation
- faces right lung

Back 138

• Right border

Front 139

heart orientation - faces left lung

Back 139

• Left border (pulmonary border)

Front 140

(an emergency procedure consisting of external cardiac massage and artificial respiration; the first treatment for a person who has collapsed and has no pulse and has stopped breathing; attempts to restore circulation of the blood and prevent death or brain damage due to lack of oxygen)

Back 140

• CPR – cardiopulmonary resuscitation, CPR, cardiac resuscitation, mouth-to-mouth resuscitation, kiss of life

Front 141

– dense irregular CT -protects and anchors the heart, prevents verstretching

Back 141

• Fibrous peicardium

Front 142

– thin delicate membrane– contains

Back 142

• Serous pericardium
• parietal layer-outer layer
• pericardial cavity with pericardial fluid
• visceral layer (epicardium)

Front 143

• Layers of the wall of heart–

Back 143

epicardium, myocardium, endocardium

Front 144

– visceral layer of serous pericardium

Back 144

Epicardium

Front 145

- cardiac muscle layer s the bulk of the heart; Cardiac heart in interlacing bundles

Back 145

• Myocardium

Front 146

– chamber lining &valves

Back 146

• Endocardium

Front 147

• Four chambers of the heart

Back 147

– 2 upper atria
– 2 lower ventricles

Front 148

- grooves on surface of heart containing coronary blood vessels and fat

Back 148

• Sulci– coronary sulcus

Front 149

• encircles heart and marks the boundary between the atria and the ventricles
– anterior interventricular sulcus
• marks the boundary between the ventricles anteriorly
– posterior interventricular sulcus
• marks the boundary between the ventricles posteriorly

Back 149

four chambers of the heart

Front 150

A-V valves close preventing backflow of blood into atria – occurs when ventricles contract, pushing valve cusps
closed, chordae tendinae are pulled taut and papillary muscles contract to pull cords and prevent cusps from everting

Back 150

true

Front 151

A-V valves open and allow blood to flow from atria ventricles when ventricular pressure is into lower than
atrial pressure – occurs when ventricles are relaxed, chordae tendineae are slack and papillary muscles are
relaxed

Back 151

true

Front 152

• SL valves open pen with ventricular contraction – allow blood to flow into pulmonary trunk and aorta

Back 152

true

Front 153

• SL valves close with ventricular relaxation – prevents blood from returning to ventricles, blood fills valve cusps, tightly closing the SL valves

Back 153

true

Front 154

contract, blood fills ventricles through A-V valves

Back 154

Atria

Front 155

contract, blood pumped into aorta and pulmonary trunk through SL valves

Back 155

Ventricles

Front 156

Blood Flow

Back 156

BODY(deoxygenated) -> superior vena cava, inferior vena cava, coronary sinus(heart circulation) -> Right Atrium - > Tricuspid Valve -> Right Ventricle -> Semilunar Valve -> Pulmonary Artery -> LUNGS (oxygenated) -> Pulmonary veins -> left atrium -> bicuspid valve -> left ventricle -> semilunar valve -> -> aorta(coronary artery/heart circulation) -> BODY

Front 157

Coronary Circulation
• Coronary circulation is blood supply to the heart
• Heart as a very active muscle needs lots of O2
• When the heart relaxes high pressure of blood in aorta pushes blood into coronary vessels
• Many anastomoses – connections between arteries supplying blood to the same region, provide alternate routes if one artery becomes occluded

Back 157

true

Front 158

Coronary Arteries
Branches off aorta above aortic semilunar valve
• Left coronary artery – circumflex branch
• in coronary sulcus, supplies left atrium and left ventricle
– anterior interventricular art.
• supplies both ventricles
• Right coronary artery – marginal branch
• in coronary sulcus, supplies right ventricle
– posterior interventricular artery
• supplies both ventricles

Back 158

true

Front 159

Coronary Veins
• Collects wastes from cardiac muscle
• Drains into a large sinus on posterior surface of heart called the coronary sinus
• Coronary sinus empties into right atrium

Back 159

true

Front 160

– Cells fire spontaneously, act as pacemaker and form conduction system for the heart

Back 160

• Autorhythmic Cells

Front 161

– cluster of cells in wall of Rt. Atria – begins heart activity that spreads to both atria – excitation spreads to AV node

Back 161

• SA node

Front 162

– in atrial septum, transmits signal to bundle of His

Back 162

• AV node

Front 163

– the connection between atria and ventricles – divides into bundle branches purkinje fibers, large diameter fibers that conduct signals quickly

Back 163

• AV bundle of His

Front 164

Where is the pacemaker of the heart located?

Back 164

SA Node – right atrium

Front 165

o Pathway of cardiac conduction

Back 165

SA node -> AV node -> Bundles of It is -> Left & right bundle branches -> Purkinjie fibers

Front 166

EKG -

Back 166

Action potentials of all active cells can be detected and recorded
• P wave – atrial depolarization
• P to Q interval – conduction time from atrial to ventricular excitation
• QRS complex – ventricular depolarization wave – ventricular repolarization

Front 167

– atrial depolarization

Back 167

• P wave

Front 168

– conduction time from atrial to ventricular excitation

Back 168

• P to Q interval

Front 169

– ventricular depolarization wave – ventricular repolarization

Back 169

• QRS complex

Front 170

At 75 beats/min, one cycle requires 0.8 sec. – systole (contraction) and diastole (relaxation) of both
atria, plus the systole and diastole of both ventricles

Back 170

true

Front 171

– volume in ventricle at end of diastole, about 130ml

Back 171

• End diastolic volume (EDV)

Front 172

– volume in ventricle at end of systole, about 60ml

Back 172

• End systolic volume (ESV)

Front 173

– the volume ejected per beat from each ventricle, about 70ml – SV = EDV - ESV

Back 173

• Stroke volume (SV)

Front 174

Auscultation - Stethoscoppe

Back 174

true

Front 175

• Sounds of heartbeat are from turbulence in blood flow caused by valve closure
– first heart sound (lubb) is created with the closing of the atrioventricular valves
– second heart sound (dupp) is created with the closing of semilunar valves

Back 175

true

Front 176

• Heart muscle receiving insufficient blood supply
– narrowing of vessels--- atherosclerosis, artery spasm or clot
– atherosclerosis—smooth muscle & fatty deposits walls of arteries

Back 176

• Coronary artery disease

Front 177

• Coronary artery disease treatment

Back 177

• Treatment – drugs, bypass graft, angioplasty, stent

Front 178

– death of area of heart muscle from lack of O2
– replaced with scar tissue – results depend on size & location of damage

Back 178

• Myocardial infarction

Front 179

– forces involved in circulating blood

Back 179

Hemodynamics

Front 180

• Closed system of tubes that carries blood
• Arteries carry blood from heart to tissues
– elastic arteries
– muscular arteries
– arterioles
• Capillaries are thin enough to allow exchange
• Venules merge to form veins that bring blood back to the heart
• Vasa vasorum is vessels in walls of large vessel

Back 180

true

Front 181

• Five main types of blood vessels – differences between them

Back 181

Pulmonary veins, pulmonary artery, aorta, superior vena cava and inferior vena cava, and the coronary arteries.

Front 182

Arteries layers

Back 182

• Tunica interna (intima)
• Tunica media
• Tunica externa

Front 183

– simple squamous epithelium known as endothelium – basement membrane – internal elastic lamina

Back 183

• Tunica interna (intima)

Front 184

– circular smooth muscle & elastic fibers

Back 184

• Tunica media

Front 185

– elastic & collagen fibers

Back 185

• Tunica externa

Front 186

• Structure of blood vessels

Back 186

Artery -> Capillary -> Vein

Front 187

• Arteries vs. veins (always an easy essay question to ask)

Back 187

Thick tunica media thin
High pressure low
Away from the heart direction towards the heart
No valves yes

Front 188

Capillaries form Microcirculation
• Microscopic vessels that connect arterioles to venules
• Found near every cell in the body but more extensive in highly active tissue (muscles, liver, kidneys & brain)
– entire capillary bed fills with blood when tissue is active– lacking in epithelia, cornea and lens of eye & cartilage
• Function is exchange of nutrients & wastes between blood and tissue fluid
• Structure is single layer of simple squamous epithelium and its basement membrane

Back 188

true

Front 189

– intercellular clefts are gaps between neighboring cells – skeletal & smooth, connective
tissue and lungs

Back 189

• Continuous capillaries

Front 190

– plasma membranes have many holes – kidneys, small intestine, choroid plexuses, ciliary process & endocrine glands

Back 190

• Fenestrated capillaries

Front 191

– very large fenestrations – incomplete basement membrane – liver, bone marrow, spleen, anterior pituitary, & parathyroid gland

Back 191

• Sinusoids

Front 192

• What are the functions of valves?

Back 192

Valves are thin folds of tunica interna designed to prevent backflow

Front 193

• Venous return – how does this occur?

Back 193

Venous return (VR) is the flow of blood back to the heart. Under steady-state conditions, venous return must equal cardiac output (CO) when averaged over time because the cardiovascular system is essentially a closed loop (see figure at right). Otherwise, blood would accumulate in either the systemic or pulmonary circulations. Although cardiac output and venous return are interdependent, each can be independently regulated

Front 194

The Lymphatic and Immune System
• Resistance is the ability to ward off disease – lack of resistance is termed susceptibility
• Nonspecific resistance to disease – general defensive mechanisms effective on a wide
range of pathogens (disease producing microbes) • Specific resistance or immunity is ability to
fight a specific pathogen – cell-mediated immunity – antibody-mediated immunity

Back 194

true

Front 195

Lymphatic System
• Organs, vessels and a fluid called lympy – similar to interstitial fluid
• Organs involved – red bone marrow – thymus – spleen – lymph nodes – diffuse lymphatic tissue
• tonsils, adenoids & peyers patches

Back 195

true

Front 196

Functions of the Lymphatic System

Back 196

• Draining excess interstitial fluid & plasma proteins from tissue spp paces
• Transporting dietary lipids & vitamins from GI tract to the blood
• Facilitating immune responses – recognize microbes or abnormal cells & responding by killing them directly or secreting antibodies that cause their destruction

Front 197

what is lymph

Back 197

• Where does lymph flow?
• Fluid & proteins escaping from vascular capillaries is collected by lymphatic capillaries & returned to the blood
• Respiratory & muscular pumps promote flow of lymphatic fluid
• Lymphatic vessels empty into subclavian veins

Front 198

• What are lymph nodes? Were are they located?

Back 198

Flow is in one direction – afferent vessels lead in – sinuses lead to efferent vessels that exit at hilus
• Only nodes filter lymph
• Bean-shaped organs, up to 1 inch long, located along lymphatic vessels – scattered throughout body but concentrated near mammary glands, axillae & groin
• Stroma is capsule, trabeculae & reticular fibers
• Parenchyma is divided into 2 regions: – cortex
• lymphatic nodules with germinal centers containing dendritic cells – antigen-presenting cells and macrophages
• B cells proliferate into antibody-secreting plasma cells – medulla
• contains B cells & plasma cells in medullary cords

Front 199

Primary lymphatic organs
– provide environment for stem cells to divide & mature into B and T lymphocytes
• red bone marrow gives rise to mature B cells
• thymus is site where pre-T cells from red marrow mature

Back 199

true

Front 200

thymus

Back 200

• Large organ in infants (70 g) but atrophied as adult (3 g)
• 2 lobed organ located in mediastinum
• Capsule & trabeculae divide it into lobules
• Each lobule has cortex & medulla
• Cortex
– tightly packed lymphocytes & macrophages
• Medulla
– reticular epithelial cells produces thymic hormones
– Hassall’s corpuscles

Front 201

• Large organ in infants (70 g) but atrophied as adult (3 g)
• 2 lobed organ located in mediastinum
• Capsule & trabeculae divide it into lobules
• Each lobule has cortex & medulla
• Cortex
– tightly packed lymphocytes & macrophages
• Medulla
– reticular epithelial cells produces thymic hormones
– Hassall’s corpuscles

Back 201

true

Front 202

• Parenchyma consists of

Back 202

white pulp and red pulp

Front 203

is lymphatic tissue (lymphocytes & macrophages) around branches of splenic artery

Back 203

– white

Front 204

is venous sinuses filled with blood & splenic tissue (splenic cords)

Back 204

– red pulp

Front 205

• Controls and integrates all body activities within limits that maintain life

Back 205

nervous tissue

Front 206

Three basic functions of nervous tissue

Back 206

– sensing changes with sensory receptors
• fullness of stomach or sun on your face
– interpreting and remembering those changes
– reacting to those changes with effectors
• muscular contractions
• glandular secretions

Front 207

• Functional unit of nervous system
• Have capacity to produce action potentials
– electrical excitability

Back 207

neurons

Front 208

• Cell body
– single nucleus with prominent nucleolus
– Nissl bodies (chromatophilic substance)

Back 208

cell body

Front 209

– neurofilaments give cell shape and support
– microtubules move material inside cell
– lipofuscin pigment clumps (harmless aging)

Back 209

• rough ER & free ribosomes for protein synthesis

Front 210

= dendrites & axons

Back 210

• Cell processes

Front 211

- • Conducts impulses towards the cell body
• Typically short, highly branched & unmyelinated
• Surfaces specialized for contact with other neurons
• Contains neurofibrils & Nissl bodies

Back 211

Dendrites

Front 212

• Conduct impulses away from cell body
• Long, thin cylindrical process of cell
• Arises at axon hillock
• Impulses arise from initial segment (trigger zone)

Back 212

Axon

Front 213

• Side branches (collaterals) end in fine processes called

Back 213

axon terminals

Front 214

• Swollen tips that contain vesicles filled with neurotransmitters

Back 214

called synaptic end bulbs

Front 215

is location for most protein synthesis
– neurotransmitters & repair proteins

Back 215

• Cell body

Front 216

system moves substances

Back 216

• Axonal transport

Front 217

• movement in one direction only -- away from cell body
• movement at 1-5 mm per day

Back 217

– slow axonal flow

Front 218

• moves organelles & materials along surface of microtubules
• at 200-400 mm per day
• transports in either direction
• for use or for recycling in cell body

Back 218

– fast axonal flow

Front 219

= several dendrites & one axon
• most common cell type

Back 219

– multipolar

Front 220

= one main dendrite & one axon
• found in retina, inner ear & olfactory

Back 220

– bipolar neurons

Front 221

= one process only(develops from a bipolar)
• are always sensory neurons

Back 221

– unipolar neurons

Front 222

• Half of the volume of the CNS
• Smaller cells than neurons
• 50X more numerous
• Cells can divide – rapid mitosis in tumor formation (gliomas)

Back 222

glial cells

Front 223

glial cells in CNS

Back 223

astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, ependymal

Front 224

glial cells in PNS

Back 224

Schwann cells, satellite cells

Front 225

- • Star-shaped cells
• Form blood-brain barrier by covering blood capillaries
• Metabolize neurotransmitters
• Regulate K+ balance
• Provide structural support

Back 225

Astrocytes

Front 226

• Most common glial cell type
• Each forms myelin sheath around more than one axons in CNS
• Analogous to Schwann cells of PNS

Back 226

Oligodendrocytes

Front 227

- Small cells found near blood vessels
• Phagocytic role -- clear away dead cells
• Derived from cells that also gave rise to macrophages & monocytes

Back 227

microglia

Front 228

– Form epithelial membrane lining cerebral cavities & central canal
• Produce cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

Back 228

Ependymal

Front 229

- Cells encircling PNS axons
• Each cell produces part of the myelin sheath surrounding an axon in the PNS

Back 229

Schwann

Front 230

- Flat cells surrounding neuronal cell bodies in peripheral ganglia
• Support neurons in the PNS ganglia

Back 230

satellite cells

Front 231

• Oligodendrocytes myelinate axons in the CNS
• Broad, flat cell processes wrap about CNS axons, but the cell bodies do not surround the axons
• No neurilemma is formed
• Little regrowth after injury is possible due to the lack of a distinct tube or neurilemma

Back 231

Myelination in the CNS

Front 232

• Schwann cells myelinate (wrap around) axons in the PNS during fetal development
• Schwann cell cytoplasm & nucleus forms outermost layer of neurolemma with inner portion being the myelin sheath
-Tube guides growing axons that are repairing themselves

Back 232

Myelination in the PNS

Front 233

= myelinated processes (white in color)

Back 233

• White matter

Front 234

= nerve cell bodies, dendrites, axon terminals, bundles of unmyelinated axons and neuroglia (gray color)

Back 234

• Gray matter

Front 235

– In the spinal cord = gray matter forms an H-shaped inner core surrounded by white matter
- In the brain a thin outer shell of gray matter covers the surface & is found in clusters called nuclei inside the CNS

Back 235

true

Front 236

• are Neurons in the CNS organized into neuronal networks
•A neuronal network may contain thousands or even millions of neurons.
• Neuronal circuits are involved in many important activities
– breathing
– short-term memory
– waking up

Back 236

Neuronal Circuits

Front 237

-- single cell stimulates many others

Back 237

• Diverging

Front 238

-- one cell stimulated by many otherCo ve g g o e ce s u a edby a yo e s

Back 238

• Converging

Front 239

-- impulses from later cells repeatedly stimulate early cells in the circuit (short-term memory)

Back 239

• Reverberating

Front 240

-- single cell stimulates a group of cells that all stimulate a common postsynaptic cell (math problems)

Back 240

• Parallel-after-discharge

Front 241

Sympathetic Innervation
• Vascular smooth muscle is innervated by sympathetic nervous system
– increase in stimulation causes muscle contraction or vasoconstriction
• decreases diameter of vessel
– injury to artery or arteriole causes muscle contraction reducing blood loss (vasospasm)
– decrease in stimulation or presence of certain chemicals causes vasodilation
• increases diameter of vessel
• nitric oxide, K+, H+ and lactic acid cause vasodilation

Back 241

Sympathetic Innervation
• Vascular smooth muscle is innervated by sympathetic nervous system
– increase in stimulation causes muscle contraction or vasoconstriction
• decreases diameter of vessel
– injury to artery or arteriole causes muscle contraction reducing blood loss (vasospasm)
– decrease in stimulation or presence of certain chemicals causes vasodilation
• increases diameter of vessel
• nitric oxide, K+, H+ and lactic acid cause vasodilation

Front 242

Elastic Arteries
• Largest-diameter arteries have lot of elastic fibers in tunica media
• Help propel blood onward despite ventricular stretch and recoil pressure relaxation (-- reservoir)

Back 242

Elastic Arteries
• Largest-diameter arteries have lot of elastic fibers in tunica media
• Help propel blood onward despite ventricular stretch and recoil pressure relaxation (-- reservoir)

Front 243

Muscular Arteries
• Medium-sized arteries with more muscle than elastic fibers in tunica media
• Capable of greater vasoconstriction and vasodilation to adjust rate of flow
– walls are relatively thick called distributing arteries because they direct
– blood flow

Back 243

Muscular Arteries
• Medium-sized arteries with more muscle than elastic fibers in tunica media
• Capable of greater vasoconstriction and vasodilation to adjust rate of flow
– walls are relatively thick called distributing arteries because they direct
– blood flow

Front 244

Arterioles
• Small arteries delivering blood to capillaries
– tunica media containing few layers of muscle
• Metarterioles form branches into capillary bed
– to bypass capillary bed, precapillary sphincters close & blood flows bed in out of thoroughfare channel
– vasomotion is intermittent contraction & relaxation of sphincters that allow filling of capillary bed 5-10 times/minute

Back 244

Arterioles
• Small arteries delivering blood to capillaries
– tunica media containing few layers of muscle
• Metarterioles form branches into capillary bed
– to bypass capillary bed, precapillary sphincters close & blood flows bed in out of thoroughfare channel
– vasomotion is intermittent contraction & relaxation of sphincters that allow filling of capillary bed 5-10 times/minute

Front 245

Capillaries form Microcirculation
• Microscopic vessels that connect arterioles to venules
• Found near every cell in the body but more extensive in highly active tissue (muscles, liver, kidneys & brain)
– entire capillary bed fills with blood when tissue is active
– lacking in epithelia, cornea and lens of eye cartilage
• Function is exchange of nutrients & wastes between and tissue fluid blood
• Structure is single layer of simple squamous epithelium basement membrane and its

Back 245

Capillaries form Microcirculation
• Microscopic vessels that connect arterioles to venules
• Found near every cell in the body but more extensive in highly active tissue (muscles, liver, kidneys & brain)
– entire capillary bed fills with blood when tissue is active
– lacking in epithelia, cornea and lens of eye cartilage
• Function is exchange of nutrients & wastes between and tissue fluid blood
• Structure is single layer of simple squamous epithelium basement membrane and its

Front 246

Venules
• Small veins collecting blood from capillaries
• Tunica media contains only a few smooth muscle cells & scattered fibroblasts
– very porous endothelium allows for escape of many phagocytic white blood cells
• Venules that approach size of veins more closely resemble structure of vein

Back 246

Venules
• Small veins collecting blood from capillaries
• Tunica media contains only a few smooth muscle cells & scattered fibroblasts
– very porous endothelium allows for escape of many phagocytic white blood cells
• Venules that approach size of veins more closely resemble structure of vein

Front 247

Veins
• Proportionally thinner walls than same diameter artery
– tunica media less muscle
– lack external & internal elastic lamina
• Still adaptable to variations in volume & pressure
• Valves are thin folds of tunica interna designed to prevent backflow
• Venous sinus has no muscle at all
– coronary sinus or dural venous sinuses

Back 247

Veins
• Proportionally thinner walls than same diameter artery
– tunica media less muscle
– lack external & internal elastic lamina
• Still adaptable to variations in volume & pressure
• Valves are thin folds of tunica interna designed to prevent backflow
• Venous sinus has no muscle at all
– coronary sinus or dural venous sinuses

Front 248

Varicose Veins
• Twisted, dilated superficial veins
– caused by leaky venous valves
• congenital or mechanically stressed from prolonged
standing or pregnancy
– allow backflow and pooling of blood
• extra pressure forces fluids into surrounding tissues
• nearby tissue is inflamed and tender
• Deeper veins not susceptible because of support of surrounding muscles

Back 248

Varicose Veins
• Twisted, dilated superficial veins
– caused by leaky venous valves
• congenital or mechanically stressed from prolonged
standing or pregnancy
– allow backflow and pooling of blood
• extra pressure forces fluids into surrounding tissues
• nearby tissue is inflamed and tender
• Deeper veins not susceptible because of support of surrounding muscles

Front 249

Anastomoses
• Union of 2 or more arteries supplying the same body region
– blockage of only one pathway has no effect
• circle of willis underneath brain
• coronary circulation of heart
• Alternate route of blood flow through an anastomosis is known as collateral circulation
– can occur in veins and venules as well
• Alternate routes to a region can also be supplied by nonanastomosing vessels

Back 249

Anastomoses
• Union of 2 or more arteries supplying the same body region
– blockage of only one pathway has no effect
• circle of willis underneath brain
• coronary circulation of heart
• Alternate route of blood flow through an anastomosis is known as collateral circulation
– can occur in veins and venules as well
• Alternate routes to a region can also be supplied by nonanastomosing vessels