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86 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Pathologic Anatomy
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Study of the changes to the body that acompany disease
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Embryology
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The science about the development of the embryo from from fertilized egg --> fetus (9 weeks of gestation)- usually includes organogenesis, which is important for understanding adult body structure and function
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Auscultation
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listening for the sounds of the internal organs by ear or stethoscope
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How does an X ray work?
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A high intensity beam transilluminates the patient, showing the different tissue densities. More dense tissue (ex: the compact bone) will absorb more X ray than a less dense tissue (ex: cancellous bone)
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What is a CT scan?
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Computerized Tomography- shows images of the body in transverse anatomical sections. An X-ray beam is shot through the body as the xray tube and detector turn.
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Ultrasonography
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records the ultrasonic waves reflecting off the tissue to allow visualization of superficial structures and their motions (like blood flow through vessels)
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MRI
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Magnetic Resonance imaging- uses the same general iea as CT, but the radiologist can reconstruct the image on any plane. Person is placed in a scanner with a strong magnetic field and pulsed with a radio wave. The pulses can be gated/timed to show movement
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PET scan
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Positron emission tomography- uses cyclotron-produced isotopes with a short half-life that emit positrons. Used to evaluate physiological functions of organs on a dynamic level- ex: areas of increasing brain activity will show selective uptake of the isotope
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Cell theory
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derived from Robert Hooke (named the cell) in 1665- Theodore Schwann and Matthias Schleidorn (1839)- declared cells the smallest unit of life
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Neoplasms
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Tumors- cause cells to reverse/stop differentiation
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Progenitor stem cells
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Multipotent stem cells found in most tissues- undergo mitosis and differentiation to replenish lost cells- derrive from the germ layers
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totipotent cell
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The ability of one cell to divide and become any cell in the human body
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Pluripotent cells
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Cells that can differentiate into any kind of cell except placental or embryonic
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What are the three Germ layers?
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Ectoderm (skin, hair, brain, nerves, etc)
Endoderm (Lungs, thyroid, pancreas, etc) Mesoderm (Cardiac, skeletal, renal, muscle, blood, etc) |
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Coelom
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the embryonic body cavity between the endoderm and the mesoderm
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Masson's Trichome Stain
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Differentiates collagen (dense blue) from other fibers (skin)
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Eosin and Hematoxylin
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stains acids (like the nucleus) blue and bases (like the cytoplasm/extracellular matrix) pink
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How does one treat a tissue sample that will be viewed using electron microscopy
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Stained w/ heavy metals- Pb citrate, Ur, or Ag- when the metals precipitate it reflects electrons and shows black on the image. tissues w/out metal affinity appear transparent- lets more electrons pass through. Lipids will be black, proteins grey, CHOs fairly clear
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Immunocytochemistry
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ICC- lab technique that uses antibodies to target specific peptides or other antigens in the cell via specific epitopes- the secondary antibody specific to primary antibody is usually labelled with a fluorophores
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Histochemistry/Cytochemisty
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used to localize chemical constituents of cells/tissues by selective staining in situ (ex: localization of acid phosphatases et al enzymes- chloroacetate esterase stains neutrophils blue, nonspecific esterase stains monocytes red-brown
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light microscope
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beam of light is passed down through the lenses to the specimen- resolution is limited to about .2 micrometers. Can be used to observe cells and large organelles
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Electron microscope
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uses an electron beam passing through a specimen (transition EM, TEM) or is reflected off the specimen (Scanning EM, SEM)- allows more magnification/higher resolution than light- can see big macromolecules, such as DNA and Myosin
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Transmission electron microscope
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uses a beam of electrons through the specimen- gets resolution down to .2nm, requires v. thin (200-300nm) sections on a copper mesh slide
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Scanning Electron Microscope
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Reflects the electron beam off the specimen, resolution of 10 nm (smaller than TEM)- uses a heavy metal (Au or palladium) on top of frozen/fractured tissue to allow a 3D image of the organelles
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Why/how do we fix EM specimens
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Prevents post-mortal changes- done via glutaraldehyde/paraformaldehyde to fix proteins and osmium tetroxide/potassium permangante to fix lipids
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What are the 7 basic functions of the cell membrane
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1. maintains structural integrity
2. Controls moment of substances in/out of the cell (selective permeability) 3. Regulates cell-cell interactions 4. transports specific molecules 5. translates extracellular physical/chemical signals into intercellular events 6. protects cell from external environment 7. expresses receptors/antigens used for cellular recognition and processes |
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What happens to the fluidity of the plasma cell membrane at body temperature?
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The FA tails increase their fluidity and the cholesterol decreases in fluidity
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Where can glycolipids be found in the plasma membrane?
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Must be found on the outer leaflet- the hydrophilic CHO component helps to form the glycocalyx
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What are the basic functions of the nucleus?
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houses the chromosomes that code for the genetic information, controls cell growth/division, site of DNA replication and transcription
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Chromatin
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a complex of DNA and proteins that fills the nucleus- heterochromatin is tightly coiled and euchromatin is loosely arranged
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Heterochromatin
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Tightly coiled DNA and protein complex- presence in large quantities gives the nucleus a dark appearance and indicates it does not manufacture many proteins, but is preparing for cell division (characteristic of tumors and young growing tissue)
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What happens to the fluidity of the plasma cell membrane at body temperature?
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system of tubules and filaments- gives cells their shape provides mobility for cells and organelles, creates an intracellular pathway within the cell
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inclusions
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bodies of mostly metabolic byproducts within the cell- inert crystals, pigments, storage forms of various nutrients
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What is indicated by a presence of a cell wall in a human tissue stain?
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Bacterial or fungal infection
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What is the definition of a tissue?
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an aggregate of similar cells that all come from the same cell line of origin and serve a common function
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What are the 4 basic types of tissue?
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epithelial, connective, muscular, and neural
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What are the major characteristics of epithelia?
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cellular (uninterrupted), polar(apical/basal sides), avascular, and typically secretory
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What are the major functions of epithelia?
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barrier, secretion, transportation across epithelia (respiratory, urinary, etc) , absorption from lumen (ex: intestines), and detection of sensations (specialized- retina of eye, hair in ears)
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What are the major classifications of epithelia?
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simple (1 layer), stratified (many layers), squamous (flat), cuboidal (square) and columnar (tall)
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What are the 3 types of epithelial "linings"?
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endothelium- simple squamous, lines circulatory system
Mesothelium- incomplete thin layer that lines body cavities (ex: pericardium) Epithelium- thick (multiple) layers on body sirface, alimentary canal, etc |
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What is the basement membrane
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thin sheet of collagen and glycoproteins, "anchor" for epithelial tissue
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What produces the basement membrane?
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The underlying connective tissue (lamina propria) and its own cells (fibroblasts)
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How is epithelia regenerated?
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Germ cells in the stratum basale/germinativum constantly generate new cells to replace the older cells that are being sloughed off
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What is the general makeup of connective tissue?
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Bacterial or fungal infection
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What are the resident cells of connective tissue
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The sedimentary cells- fibroblasts (produce/maintain matrix, essential for wound healing), mast cells (important for inflammation)
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What is the function of mast cells in connective tissue?
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release cytokines et al hormones to attract WBC to the connective tissue- may include histamine, heparin granules, etc
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What are some of the "wandering cells" in connective tissue?
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Eosinophils, basophils, monocytes, and macrophages
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where can elastic connective tissue be found?
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structures that require more elasticity- thin sheets/membranes, walls of large blood vessels, ligaments of the vertebral column
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What tissue makes up ligaments and tendons?
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Collagen-type Dense Connective tissue
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What characterizes Dense Regular Connective Tissue
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fiber bundles arranged in a parallel or organized fashion- meant to resist stretching/stress in one direction (collagen and elastic types)
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What are the 3 types of epithelial "linings"?
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connective tissue with scattered collagen fibers in ground substance and fibroblasts- under skin, surrounds parenchyma glands, etc
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Where are the nuclei in an adipose stain?
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smooshed off to the side- the lipid is usually removed with slide preparation
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What is the characterization of irregular connective tissue?
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dense collagen meshwork- meant to resist stress in any direction
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Adventitia
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connective tissue membrane that connects/binds internal organs (esophagus, blood, etc)
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Serous membrane
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aka serosa- connective tissue covered by mesothelium which secrete serous fluid to reduce friction (ex: pericardium)
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Mucous membranes
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aka mucosa- lines cavities connected to the exterior, covered by excreting/absorbing epithelium
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cutaneous membrane
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skin- multiple layers of epithelium and different layers of connective tissue
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synovial membranes
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produce synovial fluid to lubricate joints- epithelial layer is thin and incomplete
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What is the function of the CNS?
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higher mental functions (thinking, learning)
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what is the difference between sensory and motor fibers?
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sensory fibers carry information from the receptors to the CNS, motor fibers conduct impulses from the CNS to the effector cells
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SNS vs. ANS
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Somatic- skeletal muscles'
Autonomic- involuntary- cardiac, smooth muscles and glands |
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Describe the general structure of a neuron
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It has a body (soma) and projections- the longest is the axon (used to carry messages away. There also are tree-like dendrites that gather information and bring it to the soma
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What is the "grey matter"
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the bodies of neurons- they're rich in RER and ribosomes, which make it appear darker under a microscope. They also lack the myelin sheath
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What is "white matter"
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the myelinated axons, which appear white under a microscope
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Where in the neuron do action potentials initiate and travel?
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They initiate at the axon hillock and propogate to the synaptic bulbs on the axon terminals,
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describe the junction between two neural cells
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There is a synapse (synaptic cleft) where a signal is transferred from a neurotransmitter-rich pre-synaptic membrane to a postsynaptic membrane
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What happens when an action potential reaches a synaptic knob?
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The synaptic vesicles fuse with the presynaptic membrane and release neurotransmitters into are released into the synaptic cleft. They bind to receptors open up ion channels on the postsynaptic membrane and may generate another AP
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Describe the organelles visible in a neuron
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There will be a large nucleus with a dark, triangular nucleolus. Also visible are nissil bodies (clusters of RER) and golgi bodies
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What are the 6 major neuroglial cells?
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CNS- Astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, and ependymal cells
PNS- Schwann Cells and satellite cells |
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Astrocytes
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Largest neuroglia, found in both grey/white matter- have vascular "feet" on blood vessels- help compose the blood brain barrier. Form scar tissue post- TBI. Lots of long extensions
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What are astrocytomas?
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tumors caused by rapid replication of astrocytes- 80% of brain tumors are this type.
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Oligodendrocytes
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make the myelin sheaths for axons- one can wrap around several. They have very few projections and rotate around the axon, laying down layers of myelin
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Ependymal cells
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found at the borders of neural tissue in the CNS- form the choroid plexus that makes CSF- when fixed they look like simple cuboidal epithelium, but have nuclei of different sizes to represent both themselves and the neural cells
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tanicytes
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specialized ependymal cells that supply the neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus
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Microglia
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Serve as phagocytes in the neural tissue- abundant at injury sites to clean things up. They stain dark and have shorter projections than astrocytes
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interneurons
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neurons of association- the neural cells located in the CNS that are responsible for the integration/processing of afferent to efferent neurons
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afferent vs efferent
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afferent brings info to the CNS (sensory), effernt sends a signal away (motor)
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Unipolar neurons vs bipolar
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Unipolar- one axon attached to one dendrite- soma sits off to the side of the neuron (1 pole)
Bipolar- one dendrite + 1 axon connected to the body of the neuron on opposite sides. Both are sensory |
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Multipolar neurons.
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Motor neurons- have many dendrites and one axon
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What is the connective tissue that surrounds the neural tissue?
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Epineurium (DCT) surrounds the nerve (studded with vasa nervorum
Perineurium (DCT) - surrounds the fascicle (bundle of nerves) Endoneurium (LCT)- surrounds the nerve fiber |
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Neurilemma
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Outermost membrane of a schwann cell in an axon's myelin
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Schwann cells
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myelinate the axons- for unmyelinated axons, they protect the nerve with their cytoplasm
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Ganglia
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clusters of neuronal cell bodies outside the CNS
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Myopathy
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Loss of signal between a neural and muscle cell
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Axonal degeneration
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damage to the axon, can grow back if guided by schwann cells (reinnervation)
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What happens when there is a loss of Schwann Cells?
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There will be segmental demyelination
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