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98 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What named passageways and air tubes make up the conducting zone of the respiratory system? Why is it called “conducting”?
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Nostrils, naval cavity, choanae, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles
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Know the functions of the respiratory system
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Gas exchange between inspired air and blood, moves air from the environment to the lungs and back again (tidal flow), facilitates sense of smell (olfaction), facilitates sounds production (phonation)
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What named air tubes make up the respiratory zone of the respiratory system? Why is it called “respiratory”?
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Bronchioles, respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, alveoli
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Describe the external features of the nose (look in the mirror!)
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Dorsum, ala, apex
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Describe the internal structures that make up the framework of the nose. What is rhinoplasty?
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Internal structures include nasal bones and cartilage. Rhinoplasty surgically altering the sizes and shapes of the nasal cartilages
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Know the boundaries of the nasal cavities (i.e., what is superior to it? What is inferior? What is posterior?). What are the names of the entrance (anterior) and exit (posterior) to the nasal cavities? What separates the left and right nasal cavities? How is this structure constructed? What are vibrissae?
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The septum separates the right and left sides of the nasal cavity. The anterior portion is made of cartilage – the posterior part is bone (made of the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone and the vomer).
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What are the names of the three conchae and meatuses?
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Superior, middle, and inferior chonchae and meatuses.
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What are the names of the paranasal sinuses?
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Sphenoidal, ethmoid air cells, frontal, and maxillary. Their functions are to add surface area to nasal cavities, lighten the skull, and add vocal resonance.
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Give the anatomic classification (name) of the respiratory epithelium.
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Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium with goblet cells. (epithelium + lamina propria in nasal cavity)
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How does cystic fibrosis affect the mucous escalator?
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1
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Know the functions of the larynx. Where is the larynx located? Can it be located on the external surface of the neck? Which parts? Where on the neck can an “emergency airway” be opened?
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Also known as the voicebox the larynx regulates the amount of air entering trachea and lungs. It acts as a valve to prevent food from entering the airway. There are five cartilages that make up the larynx, they are : thyroid (1), cricoid (1), epiglottis (1), and arytenoid (2). All major cartilages are made up of hyaline cartilage except the epiglottis which is made up of elastic cartilage. The site of emergency airway is located at the crico-thyroid membrane.
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Know the named structures that make up the “skeleton” of the larynx.
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Vestibular ligament, vocal ligament, vocal cord. Both the vocal cord and vocal ligament extend from the thyroid cartilage to the arytenoid cartilages. The cords move together by adduction and apart by abduction, space between the cords is the rima glottidis.
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Know the internal anatomy of the larynx (e.g. – name the two prominent folds of mucous membrane that can be seen with laryngoscopy in the doctor’s office).
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False vocal fold = vestibular fold
True vocal fold = vocal cord |
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How are vocal folds different from vocal ligaments?
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Vocal ligament - an elastic membrane
Vocal cord - vocal membrane + mucous membrane covering it |
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In what ways can the arytenoid cartilages be moved?
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Posterior cricoarytenoid muscles - abduct
Lateral cricoarytenoid muscles - adduct Cricothyroid muscles - tense the vocal cords Thyroarytenoid muscles - relax the vocal cords (vocal cords no longer taut) |
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Are the muscles of the larynx smooth muscle or skeletal muscle?
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Skeletal muscle
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Which nerves supply these muscles? Is “phonation” the same thing as “speech”?
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Recurrent laryngeal nerve
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Know the names of the first three orders of bronchi in the conducting zone.
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Main (primary), Lobar (secondary), Segmental (tertiary)
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What supports the walls of the trachea and bronchi and prevents them from collapsing due to trauma or pressue?
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Hyaline cartilage rings in trachea and larger bronchi and plates in smaller bronchi
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What is pleura? What are its named parts?
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Pleura is the serous membrane associated with the lungs. Lining the inner body wall is the parietal pleura, lining the outside of the lungs is the visceral pleura, and the potential space between the two layers is the pleural cavity.
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Be able to give a basic explanation of the mechanism of breathing (ventilation).
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Inspiration - Increase volume of thoracic cavity via external intercostal muscles and the diaphragm.
Expiration - Passive recoil of body wall and lung tissue. The body wall and the lung tissues have LOTS of elastic fibers. |
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How does a pneumothorax prevent inspiration from happening?
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If the chest wail is compromised (e.g. = by a penetrating wound) – air enters the pleural cavity = Pneumothorax.
Atmospheric air in the pleural cavity prevents the lung from expanding = lung collapses. |
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How is the lung hilum different from the lung root?
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Hilum = The depression in the organ where structures enter/exit.
Root = Collectively, the structures that enter/exit at the hilum. |
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How many lobar bronchi are in the right lung? In the left lung?
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Right lung - 3 lobar bronchi
Left lung - 2 lobar bronchi |
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How many segmental bronchi are in the right and left lungs, respectively? Why are they called “segmental” bronchi? Define bronchopulmonary segment.
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Right lung - 10 segmental
Left lung - 10 segmental Bronchopulmonary segment - Segmental bronchi that supply discrete anatomical regions of the lungs |
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In terms of size, how are bronchioles defined?
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Bronchioles - below 1 mm diameter
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Understand how the microanatomy of air tubes changes as one moves from bronchi to bronchioles to alveoli (e.g. – what happens to the cartilage and smooth muscle in the walls, what happens to the cilia, and what happens to the goblet cells in the epithelia?).
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Smooth muscle in walls of each, cartilage declines and disappears before bronchioles, epithelium lowers from columnar cells to cuboidal cells.
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How does asthma affect the structures in the walls of air tubes?
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Airways of bronchi are reversibly narrowed.
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What exactly is an alveolus? What cell types are present in its wall, and what are their functions? What is a dust cell and what does it do?
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Type I and Type II alveolar cells + a basal lamina with elastic fibers.
Type I alveolar cells are squamous cells (“fried eggs”) = they make up a simple squamous epithelium. Type I cells are for gas exchange. Scattered throughout the epithelium are cuboidal cells called Type II alveolar cells. Type II cells produce surfactant. Elastic fibers allow alveoli to recoil after they fill with air and expand. |
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What is surfactant and why is it important? How is surfactant related to breathing problems in premature babies?
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Surfactant is produces by type II cells. This chemical lowers the surface tension within alveolus cavity – prevents alveoli from collapsing. Premature babies do not produce enough surfactant so they have difficulty breathing.
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What exactly is an alveolus? What cell types are present in its wall, and what are their functions?
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It is a single unit cell capable of diffusing oxygen and carbon dioxide across its membrane. Other cell types present in its wall are type I and II cells, dust cells, macrophages, RBCs.
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Know the three layers that make up the respiratory membrane? What phenomenon occurs at this membrane?
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Respiratory membrane = Alveolar type I cell + Basal lamina + Endothelial cell of capillary = Easy passage for CO2 and O2.
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Know the organs that make up the urinary system.
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Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra
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Know the major functions of the kidneys.
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Excrete waste products - wastes produced by the body via the body's metabolic processes (urea, uric acid, creatinine) and other toxins and drugs
Maintain water and ion balance in blood and tissue fluids - conserves water and produces concentrated urine, remove excess water when needed, regulate electrolyte concentration, regulate pH Maintain blood pressure - secrete enzyme renin |
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Be able to describe the gross location of the kidneys. What muscles do they lie against?
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Top of kidneys at T-11/T-12, bottom of kidneys at L3, the kidneys are posterior to the peritoneum = retroperitoneal
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Be able to describe the external and internal gross features of the kidneys.
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Hilum, renal sinus, cortex, renal column, papilla, pyramids, major calyx, minor calyces, and renal pelvis.
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Micoanatomy of kidney
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The basic functional unit of the kidney is the uriniferious tubule which is composed of two parts: nephron and collecting duct.
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Know the parts that make up the nephron.
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Parts of the nephron include distal convoluted tubule (transfers urine to collecting duct), renal corpuscle (bowmans capsule + glomerulus), proximal convoluted tubule, and loop of henle
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What is a renal corpuscle? Know which artery enters and which artery leaves the renal corpuscle.
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Renal corpuscle = Glomerulus + Glomerular capsule
Efferent and Afferent arteriole arteries enter and leave |
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What are medullary rays? Which parts of the uriniferous tubules makes them up?
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The pyramids together make up the medulla. The medullary rays are urinferous tubule bundles?
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Know the functions associated with these circulatory structures: glomerulus and peritubular capillary bed.
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Glomerulus - a ball of fenestrated capillaries (Capillary tuft surrounded by the glomerular capsule where glomerular filtration occurs)
Peritubular capillary bed - Cling to the proximal and distal convoluted tubules – they are adapted for reabsorption and secretion |
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Know the function of each named part of the uriniferous tubule.
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Glomerular capsule - receives the filtrate of blood from the glomerulus
Proximal convoluted tube - major function is tubular reabsorption as well as some secretion Loop of Henle - plays an important role in concentration of the urine Distal convoluted tubule - helps regulate pH of urine and acid/base balance of blood |
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What is antidiuretic hormone (ADH)?
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Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) (from the pituitary) increases the permeability of the duct walls to water.
Excess H2O and booze reduces ADH secretion. This produces a condition called diuresis (H20 remains in duct = dilute urine) |
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Review the parts of the uriniferous tubule and the blood supply to the glomerulus and nephron.
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Nephron: Renal corpuscle - glomerulus and glomeruler capsule
-Proximal convoluted tubule -Loop of Henle -Distal convoluted tubule |
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Blood supply to nephron
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Note that the efferent arteriole connects to TWO capillary beds (the glomerulus on one end and the peritubular capillaries on the other end)!!!
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Filtration
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Blood -> Bowmans capsule
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Secretion
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Blood -> Nephron tubules
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Reabsorption
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Nephron tubules -> Blood
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Understand the microscopic structure of the glomerular capsule.
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Outer Layer - simple squamous epithelium
Inner Layer - special cells called podocytes surround the capillaries of glomerulus Capsilar space - between outer and inner layers received blood filtrate Afferent arteriole at one end and proximal convoluted tube at the other end. (the fist is the glomerulus) |
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Processes of the nephron
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Waste/toxic substances (like creatinine) that are not initially filtered into Bowman’s capsule can be added to the urine later by moving them from the blood in the peritubular capillaries into the nephron tubules – this process is called SECRETION. On the other hand – movement of substances (good things like water, sodium ions, and glucose) from the filtrate in the nephron tubules to the blood in the peritubular capillaries is called REABSORPTION.
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What is a filtration slit and filtration diaphragm? Know the three parts of the filtration barrier.
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The tiny spaces between the foot processes of the podocytes are called filtration slits. The filtration slits are covered by super-thin membranes made of protein fibers = these are called slit diaphragms. The filtrate made from blood plasma has to pass through the filtration slits where it is filtered by the slit diaphragms.
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The Filtration Barrier (between capillary lumen and glomerular space) contains 3 parts
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As the blood plasma is forced out of the capillaries to become the glomerular filtrate it passes through (1) the pores and extracellular clefts of the fenestrated capillary, (2) the protein fibers of the basal lamina, and (3) the thin layer of protein in the slit diaphragms that cover the filtration slits. The basal lamina and slit diaphragms allow only the smallest of molecules to pass into the Bowman’s capsule as glomerular filtrate. Larger molecules like proteins cannot pass through this filtration barrier.
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Proximal Convoluted Tubule
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Lined by a simple cuboidal epithelium
Lots of mitochondria in cytoplasm. Microvilli on apical surfaces. Folded lateral and basal cell membranes. |
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Thin portion of Loop of Henle (lined by simple squamous epithelium)
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The thin ascending portion of the loop of Henle actively pumps chloride ions (and passively moves sodium ions) from the loop lumen into the connective tissue surrounding the nephron. The thin ascending portion of the loop is not permeable to water. This sets up a highly hypertonic environment in the connective tissue surrounding the nephron that will cause water to be moved out of the collecting ducts – this helps us (1) conserve water in our bodies and (2) produce a concentrated urine.
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Distal Convoluted tubule (lined by simple cuboidal epithelium)
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Fewer microvilli.
Fewer mitochondria. Folded lateral and basal cell membrane. Little reabsorption occurs in the distal convoluted tubule (compared with the proximal tubule) – so fewer microvilli are present. |
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Collecting ducts (lined by simple cuboidal epithelium)
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The permeability of the collecting duct cells to water is controlled by a hormone produced in the pituitary gland = Anti-diruretic hormone (ADH). When water intake is limited ADH is produced and water can move out of the collecting ducts (thanks to the hypertonic environment in the connective tissue surrounding the nephron) thus helping us to produce a concentrated urine and conserve water. Alcohol inhibits ADH production – thus collecting ducts cells become less permeable to water and the urine becomes more dilute (when we produce lots of dilute urine it is called “diuresis”).
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Three named orders of branching arteries that supply the kidney
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Interlobular Artery in renal column, Arcuate Artery, Interlobular Arteries in cortex
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Describe the course of the ureter.
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Convey urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder in the pelvic cavity
2 to 3 major calyces converge to form the pelvis of the ureter |
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Ureter
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Liked kidneys the ureters are also retroperitoneal. The narrowest portion of the ureter are : Just distal to the pelvis of the ureter, as the ureter crosses the external iliac arteries, as they enter the wall of the urinary bladder
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Kidney Stone
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Kidney stones are hard masses formed within the urine made from crystals of calcium oxalate, calcium phosphate, or uric acid. Large stones block ureters = cause smooth muscle spasm.
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Urinary Bladder shape and location
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Bladder next to prostate and pubic symphasis in males, in females similiar location
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What is transitional epithelium, where is it found, and what are its functions?
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Transitional epithelium (stratified = 7-8 layers) lines the urinary organs from the calyces in the kidney to the urinary bladder
Allows organs to stretch and fill. Prevents movement of water into organs. |
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What is the urethra? What is its function? Know its general course in males and females and where it terminates in both sexes.
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Female = Short - Opens into vestibule anterior to vagina.
Male = Long – 3 named parts (prostatic, intermediate & spongy). Opens at tip of glans penis. External urethral sphincter voluntary muscle to stop flow of urine |
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Know the organs/structures that make up the internal and external genitalia of males and females.
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Internal genitalia
Within the pelvic cavity (e.g. – vagina, uterus, prostate). External genitalia Outside the pelvic cavity in an area called the perineum (e.g. - penis, testes, clitoris). |
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Function of Gonads
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Produce the sex cells (gametes).
Manufacture & secrete sex hormones. |
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Accessory sex organs
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Tubes and glands.
Nourish, support & convey gametes. |
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Scrotum
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A sac composed of skin and connective tissue (dartos), dartos contains smooth muscle tissue that wrinkles the skin of the scrotum to conserve heat
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Anatomy of Testes
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Outer fibrous capsule of testis is tunica albuginea, sperm are produced in the testis within hundreds of coiled tubules called seminiferous tubules
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Sperm Maturation
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Sperm mature in the epididymis, the ductus deferens transfers the sperm from the epididymis to the prostate.
Each Ductus Deferens unites with the duct of a Seminal Vesicle Ejaculatory Ducts |
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Summary of Sperm travel
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SUMMARY: Sperm are made in the testes – they leave the testes via the ductus deferens they enter the ejaculatory ducts where they are mixed with the secretions of the seminal vesicles seminal fluid + sperm enter the prostatic urethra where the secretions of the prostate gland are added seminal fluid (sperm + secretions of seminal vesicles and prostate) passes into the spongy portion of the urethra (in the penis) where the secretions of the bulbo-urethral glands are added SEMEN Semen leaves the penis via the external urethral orifice at the tip of the penis.
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Semen
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2-5ml of ejaculation is semen, approx 1% is sperm
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Spermatic cord
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A cord made of connective tissue, blood vessels and the ductus deferens – Suspends the testes and connects them to the body wall.
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Functions of spermatic cord
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Components:
- Ductus deferens - Testicular artery - Pampiniform plexus of veins - Lymphatic vessels - Autonomic nerves Pampiniform plexus of veins surrounds the testicular artery – cools the blood before it reaches the testes. |
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Inguinal canal
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An opening in the abdominal wall that allows the passage of the spermatic cord between scrotum and pelvic cavity (female inguinal canals are mainly empty)
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Undescended Testis
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Cryptorchidism
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Micro-anatomy of Seminiferous Tubules
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Cells are of two types: Spermatogenic cells = sperm-forming cells
Supporting cells |
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Spermatogenesis
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Spermatogenesis by definition occurs within the seminiferous tubules = it is the process of transforming a spermatogonium into a spermatozoa (a sperm cell). Sperm cells are produced in the seminiferous tubules – this is true – and this process takes about 75 days. However, the sperm cells that leave the seminiferous tubules are NOT fully mature = they cannot swim and cannot fertilize an egg cell. These immature sperm cells leave the seminiferous tubules and then spend about 20-25 days in the epididymis where they become mature (can swim and can fertilize an egg cell). Thus spermatogenesis takes about 75 days (in the seminiferous tubules) and final maturation in the epididymis takes 20-25 days. The total time it takes to make a mature sperm is thus about 100 days.
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Spermiogenesis
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Final step in spermatogenesis in which spermatids are made into spermatazoa
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Sertoli Cells
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Supporting cells in seminiferious tubules
-physical support for sperm, nourishment, phagocytic, produce testicular fluid flushing sperm out of seminiferous tubules into epididymis |
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Blood Testis Barrier
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Tight junctions between Sertoli cells prevents escape of sperm proteins (antigens) = no autoimmune destruction of sperm.
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Where are Leydig cells (interstitial cells) located? What do they produce?
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Located in connective tissues of testes OUTSIDE of seminiferous tubules. They produce and secrete testosterone into the blood
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Where is the epididymis located? Be able to describe the microanatomy of the epididymis. Why do its cells have stereocilia?
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Epididymis are made of pseudostratified columnar epithelium with steriocelia = long microvilli. Slow passage of sperm through epididymis is crucial for sperm maturation, stereocilia are there to slow sperm down
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How would you describe the microanatomy of the ductus deferens? What division of the nervous system supplies the ductus deferens?
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Small lumen, three thick smooth muscle layers, sympathetic innervation
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Vasectomy
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Cut and seal ends of the vas deferns for male sterilization
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Where are the seminal vesicles located and what do they produce?
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Located posterior to the bladder & superior to prostate, they produce seminal fluid.
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Know the location and function of the prostate.
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30-40% of semen.
Contains citric acid and proteolytic enzymes (e.g. prostate specific antigen [PSA]) that liquefy semen. |
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Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia
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Enlargement of prostate due to age
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Where are the bulbo-urethral glands located and what is their function?
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Located deep to the base of the penis, Produce “pre-ejaculate” that lubricates urethra and may neutralize its acid environment prior to ejaculation.
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Know the gross features of the penis.
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Root and Body
Contains 3 erectile bodies: Corpora cavernosa (2) Corpus spongiosum (1) |
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Erection
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Neurovascular,
Cavernous bodies are modified veins with many cavities surrounded by an endothelium, connective tissue & smooth muscle. Small arteries dilate and fill the cavities with blood. Venous drainage is slowed = penis swells. |
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Female accessory sex organs
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Accessory sex organs
Uterus Uterine (Fallopian) tubes Vagina External genitalia (labia, clitoris, etc.) |
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Mid saggital organization of female sex organs
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Ovaries and uterine tubes do not line up with mid saggital plane
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Give a definition of the broad ligament.
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The broad ligament supports the uterus, uterine tubes and ovaries
A double layer of peritoneum that drapes over the uterus and ovarian tubes and attaches to the ovaries. Has 3 named parts: Mesometrium (mm) Mesosalpinx (ms) Mesovarium (mo) |
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Ovaries
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Produce progesterone and estrogen, produce ova
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Tubal Ligation
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Cauterization of fallopian tubes, may be reversible
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Ectopic Pregnancy
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Most common in wall of uterine tube
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Uterus position
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Tipped forward on vagina called anteversion
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Uterus parts
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Fundus, body, cervix, cervical canal, external os
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