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147 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What normal structures can be mistaken for lytic (dissolved) areas of the cortex?
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Nutrient foramen
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What should be done if questions arise from a radiograph of a limb?
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Shoot a comparison film of opposite limb
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The different views ______ different sides of the bones.
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Silhouette / highlight
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What does the lateral view silhouettes?
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Cranial and caudal or dorsal and palmar/plantar surfaces of bones.
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What are radiographic landmarks for the lateral side of the limb?
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Spine of scapula, greater tubercle (humerus), distal ulna, accessory carpal bone
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What are radiographic landmarks for the medial side of the thoracic limb?
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Radial capral bone, dew claw
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What are caudal/palmar landmarks for the forelimb?
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Head of humerus, olecranon, accessory carpal
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What does the craniocaudal or dorsopalmar view silhouette?
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Medial and lateral structures of the limb
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How many ossification centers does teh dogs ulna have?
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Body, head, olecranon tuberosity, in some large dogs: anconeal process and medial coronoid process
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How many growth plates do the radius and ulna have between the elbow and carpal joints?
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Radius: 2
Ulna:1 |
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What disease has periosteal proliferation of long bones associated with a space occupying lesion of the thorax or abdomen?
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Hypertrophic osteoathropathy.
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Name two normal structures that can be mistaken for fractures in the forearm.
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Anconeal process of ulna, sesamoid bones of digits or lateral collateral ligament of elbow; accessory ossicle of caudal scapula
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List the bones of the proximal row of carpal bones from medial to lateral.
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Radial, ulnar and accessory carpal bones.
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On what side of the limb is the accessory carpal bone?
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Lateral and palmar
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What bone may be mistaken for a chip fracture of the carpus?
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Sesamoid in tendon of oblique carpal extensor
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What are the two small ones located at the metacarpophalangeal joints of teh four weight bearing digits?
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Proximal palmar sesamoid cartilage
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Where on the thoracic limb do we start using dorsal and palmar?
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Proximal end of the carpus
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What makes the space between bones seen in radiograph?
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Joint space and articular cartilage
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Is cartilage seen radiographically?
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No, only inferred
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Since cartilage can't be seen radiographically, how is it evaluated?
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Check subchondral bone (under cartilage)
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Is the joint capsule seen on radiographs?
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No, unless calcified
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What is an pathological osseous (bony) outgrowth seen radiographically?
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Osteophyte or enthesiophyte
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Where are osteophytes most commonly seen in degenerative joint disease?
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At articular margins
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What is immobility of a bone, seen and consolidation of a joint due to disease, injury or surgical procedure?
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Ankylosis
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What is an increase in the density of a bone?
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Sclerosis
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What is destruction of a bone, seen as reduced density (blacker)?
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Lysis
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What is a sprain?
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Injury to ligaments of a joint
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What is a luxation or dislocation?
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Complete loss of contact between articular surfaces of a joint
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Define a subluxation.
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Partial loss of contact between articular surfaces of a joint.
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What is a joint fracture?
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Break through articular cartilage of a joint.
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What is osteochondrosis (OC)?
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Defect in endochonral ossification: deep layer of articular cartilage die
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Do you look for radiographic changes in the cartilage in OC?
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No, can't see; check subchondral bone.
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List 2 of 4 common sites of OC?
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- Shoulder (#1)
- Medial humeral epicondyle - Medial and lateral femoral epicondyle - Proximal medial trochlea |
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What is a wad of necrotic cartilage with a sclerotic layer around it seen sometimes in OC?
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Subchondral cyst
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What is the normal appearance of the head of humerus in a film?
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Smooth and round, with no flattening
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What is the primary site for osteochondrosis in the dog?
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Caudal aspect of the head of the humerus
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How does the sbchondral bone appear in OC of the shoulder?
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Flattening or cratering of caudal head of humerus with subchondral bone sclerosis (thickening)
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What is osteochondrosis dissecans (OCD)?
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Osteochondrosis + dissected flap of cartilage.
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What is a joint mouse?
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Calcified dissecting OCD flap - break off and floats in synovium
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What can the cat's clavicle be mistaken for in a lateral radiograph?
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Bone in the esophagus
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What can cause subluxation of the humeral-radial joint?
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Premature closure of either proximal or distal radial physis
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Where is osteochondrosis of the elbow located?
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Medial condyle of the humerus
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What is a common sequela to osteochondrosis of the elbow?
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Degenerative joint disease
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What is ununited anconeal process?
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Failure of the anconeal process to unite with ulna
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When is the anconeal process considered ununited?
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If not united after 5 months
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What is the fragmented medial coronoid process?
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Improper development and fragmentation of cartilaginous precursor
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How are the medial and lateral epicondyles of the humerus differentiated in a lateral radiograph?
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Medial "squared" and extend further caudally than rounded lateral
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The position of what process is used to determine if the elbow is subluxated?
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Lateral coronoid process
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The OFA will now certify elbows. What is sent in to get certified?
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A flexed lateral film
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What is the most cranial aspect of the upper forelimb?
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Point of the shoulder
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What makes the point of the shoulder?
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Greater tubercle (point of shoulder)
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What palpable process separates the lateral surface of the scapula?
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Spine of scapula
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What is the palpable distal end of the spine of the scapula just proximal to the point of the shoulder?
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Acromion
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What is the palpable groove between the two tubercles of the humerus?
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Bicipital (intertubercular) groove
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What is the palpable tendon in the intertubercular groove?
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Tendon of biceps brachii m.
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What small lateral process is distal to the greater tubercle?
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Deltoid tuberosity
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How is the joint distal to the shoulder located?
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By flexing and extending it - elbow
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What are the lateral and medial most points just proximal to the elbow?
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Lateral and medial epicondyles
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What is the palpable large process proximal and caudal to the elbow joint?
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Olecranon = point of elbow
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What is the difficult to palpate distal end of the trochlear notch?
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Medial coronoid process
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How is the styloid process of the radius palpated?
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Flex antebrachiocarpal joint and feel distal end of radius on medial side
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What can be felt on the LATERAL side of teh antebrachiocarpal joint?
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Styloid process of the ulna
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What is the joint distal to the elbow? How is it found?
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Carpus, by flexing and extending it
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What is the projection on the palmar and lateral side of the carpus?
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Accessory carpal bone
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What are the palpable bones of the metacarpus?
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Metacarpal bones
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What are the palpable bones of the digits?
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Phalanges
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What are the palpable joints of the digits?
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Metacarpophalangeal, proximal and distal interphalangeal joints (PIP and DIP)
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What is the pad near the carpus?
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Carpal pad
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What pad is over the metacarpophalangeal joints?
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Metacarpal pad
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What are the pads over the digital joints?
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Digital pads
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What can the cat's clavicle be mistaken for in a lateral radiograph?
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Bone in the esophagus
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What is the location of most fractures of the humerus?
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Shaft
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What hinders retraction of the median nerve and brachial artery during surgery in the cat?
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They pass throught the supercondylar foramen
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What can cause premature closure of a growth plate?
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Injury to physis (growth plate)
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What happens if there is premature closure of the distal ulnar physis?
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Cranial curvature of radius and subluxation of elbow
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Can the distal physes of the forearm normally be palpated in young carnivores?
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Yes, considerably enlarged, palpate proximal to carpus (flex carpus)
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What is the "quick" that bleeds if a horny claw is cut too short?
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Artery in the dermis oer ungual process.
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How is cuttin gthe quick prevented when trimming pigmented and unpigmented claws?
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Unpigmented: Don't cut into visible pink cone.
Pigmented: Shave off layers until white area reached (just distal to quick) then use 1st to judge the rest |
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What must be removed in a declaw to prevent regrowth?
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Ungual crest
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What two methods of declawing ensures removal of teh ungual crest?
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Remove all to P3, or all (including ungual crest) but base of P3.
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What is an onychectomy?
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Removal of a claw - declawing
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How is a declaw operation performed basically?
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Guillotine nail clipper: blade in dorsal digital interphalangeal joint and other distal to digital pad.
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Why do some veterinarians leave the base of P3 in declawing?
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Preserve insertion of DDF and digital pad.
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What is sequestrum?
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Piece of dead bone
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Why do some surgeons remove all of P3 in declawing?
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To prevent sequestrum
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When is it best to remove dewclaws in dogs?
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In neonate (newborn)
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Briefly describe how a dewclaw is removed in neonate?
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Prep, cut dewclaw from metatarsal bones, single absorbable suture
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Briefly describe a dewclaw removal in older dog.
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Prep, anesthetic, elliptical excision, ligate metatarsal and dorsal proper digital aa., disarticulate P1 from Mt1 if attached, if not, just remove, suture.
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What is osteochondrosis?
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Disturbance of endochondral ossification affecting articular cartilage.
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List three sites of osteochondrosis in the dog.
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Head of the humerus (#1), trochlea of the humerus, medial coronoid process of the ulna, medial trochlea of talus, lateral condyle of the femur.
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What is an unhealed fracture, having all the structures of a synovial joint?
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False joint.
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What is an articular separation called?
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Luxation, subluxation or dislocation
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With what does the shoulder joint communicate in the canine?
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Intertubercular (bicipital) bursa
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Are luxation of the shoulder common in dogs?
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No
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What helps prevent luxation of the shoulder?
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Thickening of joint capsule (glenohumeral ligaments) and adjacent muscles
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What is the most common site of osteonchondrosis?
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Shoulder - head of humerus
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What helps prevent luxation of the elbow of the dog?
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Anconeal process in the olecranon fossa
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Why is lateral luxation more likely of the dog's elbow?
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Lateral epicondyle of the ulna is smaller than medial
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Define ununited anconeal process.
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Failure of anconeal process to unite with ulna after 5 months of age.
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What can cause degeneration of the elbow joint?
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Ununited anconeal process and fragmented medial coronoid process
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When does the anconeal process unite in German Shepherds?
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By 5 months
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What can fragmented medial coronoid process cause?
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Degeneration of elbow joint
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What is the lateral coronoid process of the ulna used to determine in lateral radiographs?
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Subluxation of the elbow
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How are ruptures of the collateral ligament of the elbow diagnosed?
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By the amount of supination or pronation allowed, compared to the unaffected limb
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What muscle is incised o open the elbow joint laterally?
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Anconeus m.
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Where are subcutaneous injections made?
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Through skin into superficial fascia
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How can pus move from one area to another?
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Along fascial planes
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How can a neck infection spread to the thorax?
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Migrate down fascial planes to the thorax
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How are fascial planes used in surgery?
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Used as cleavage planes to reach deep structures relatively free of blood.
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How do you determine unilateral atrophy of shoulder muscles?
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Compare muscles on both sides by palpation.
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At what level is it easier to amputate the forelimb and why?
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Scapular removal is faster and easier than shoulder disarticulation
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Why is leaving the scapula when amputating the forelimb cosmetically unacceptable in short haired breeds?
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Atrophy = unsightly bony prominences
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How do dogs do on three limbs?
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Most adapt well, larger the animal the harder.
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What muscles must be transected to remove the entire forelimb including the scapula?
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All the extrinsic muscles of the forelimb.
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What is a tenotomy?
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Transecting the tendon.
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Where and when can the olecranon bursa be palpated?
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At the termination of the long head of the triceps when affected
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Of what clinical importance are the superficial veins of the shoulder region?
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Must be retracted or ligated in surgical approaches to shoulder.
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What is the easiest vein for venipuncture?
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Cephalic vein
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How is the cephalic vein raised for venipuncture?
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Finger pressure across lateral, cranial, and medial sides of elbow.
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Where is venipuncture usually performed on the cephalic vein?
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In the forearm above the carpus; start distally so that if you "flub" you can move up the arm
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Why is the external jugular vein, which passes superficially up the neck, hard to perfom venipuncture into?
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Moves freely
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To puncture the external jugular vein, first go through the _____ parallel to the vein and then angle and insert the needle gently into the vein.
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Skin
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Why can't a tourniquet be effectively used in the middle of the antebrachium?
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Caudal interosseous a. is protected from occlusion by deep position between bones.
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How is the superficial cervical lymph node palpated in a dog?
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Retract arm and palpate linearally deep to brachiocephalicus and cranial to supraspinatus mm., just dorsal to level of acromion
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How is the accessory axillary lymph node palpated if it is present?
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Lay hand flat on thorax caudal to arm, and stroke caudally.
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Why can a broken neck result in respiratory paralysis?
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Phrenic nerve to diaphragm arises from cervical and brachial plexuses.
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What is the panniculus (cutaneous trunci) response?
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Contraction of cutaneous trunci muscle in response to a pin prick of trunk.
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What is the reflex arch for the panniculus response?
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Sensation from skin of trunk over thoracic and lumbar spinal nn. to spinal cord, up cord to lateral thoracic n., out to cutaneous trunci m.
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Clinically what is the panniculus response used to evaluate?
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Level of thoracic spinal cord damage.
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What spinal nerves are involved in the panniculus response?
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Thoracic, lumbar nn. and lateral thoracic n. from brachial plexus
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Because spinal nerves pass caudoventrally , skin sensation is associated with what spinal cord segment?
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Segment 2 vertebrae cranial to level of skin
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Where is the spinal cord damage if the panniculus response disappears at the level of the 12 thoracic vertebrae?
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Level of T10
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What is a common serious injury of all the nerves of the forelimb?
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Complete avulsion (tearing ) of brachial plexus associated with HBC (hit by car).
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What are the signs of complete avulsion of the brachial plexus?
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Complete paralysis, extended flaccid limb, unable to support weight, and dragging dorsum of paw.
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What signs are seen if only caudal roots of brachial plexus (C8 - T2) are avulsed and why?
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Limb carried with shoulder and elbow flexed, due to functioning suprascapular, musculocutaneous and axillary n.
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Does sensation to the caudolateral aspect of the arm rule out complete brachial plexus avulsion?
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No, because it is innervated byt the intercostobrachialis nn. which doesn't arise from the brachial plexus.
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What results from damage to the suprascapular nerve?
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Sweeney
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What is Sweeney?
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Atrophy of supraspinatus and infraspinatus mm. = prominent scapular spine (suprascapular n. damage.)
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What is the most common and clinically significant nerve problem of the forelimb?
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Radial paralysis
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What are the two types of radial nerve injury?
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High and low radial nerve injury
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Where are high and low radial nerve injuries located?
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High: before triceps
Low: after triceps |
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What are signs of high radial nerve paralysis? Signs of low radial nerve damage?
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High: inability to bear weight on limb, dropped elbow and knuckling over on digits
Low: knuckling over on digits. |
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To what common condition is low radial nerve paralysis a sequela?
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Loss of skin sensation and loss of motor innervation (loss of function or spongy feel to muscles)
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What sensory loss is diagnostic for radial nerve injury?
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Loss of sensation on dorsal manus
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How is knuckling of radial nerve paralysis compensated?
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Flip the limb as it is advanced.
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How is loss of motor neurons of the limbs determined?
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Observance of gait; depression of tone and reflexes; palpation of muscle atrophy.
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How is loss of sensory neurons determined?
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Analgesia (loss of sensation)
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