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314 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What are the two major parts of a typical vertebra?
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Body and arch
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What space is formed by the arch and the body of the vertebra?
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Vertebral foramen
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List the seven processes of a typical vertebra
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1: spine, 2: transverse processes, 4 articular (2cr and 2 ca)
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Where do the spinal nerves leave the vertebral canal?
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Intervertebral foramen
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What is the vertebral formula of carnivores?
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C7 T13 L7 S3 Ca n
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What is formed by all the vertebral foramina of all the vertebrae?
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Vertebral canal
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What is the laminae of a vertebrae?
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Roof (top parts of the arch) of the vertebral foramen
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What is the interarcuate space?
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Dorsal gap between adjacent vertebral arches
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All mammals (man included) have how many cervical vertebrae?
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7 (except shrew and manatee 6)
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What is the first cervical vertebra?
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Atlas
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With what does the atlas articulate?
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Occipital condyles of skull
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What are the large lateral masses of the atlas?
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Wings of atlas (transverse processes)
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What is the name of the second cervical vertebra?
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Axis
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What peg-like process on the axis forms a pivot articulation with the atlas?
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Dens
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What is the large ventral projection of the sixth cervical vertebra?
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Transverse process ("sled")
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What distinguishes all thoracic vertebrae from other vertebrae?
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Articular facets (fovea) for ribs
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What is the thoracic vertebra with the most vertically oriented spine?
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Anticlinal vertebra, T11 usually in dog
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Where are the costal fovea of the vertebrae located?
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Cranial and caudal vertebral bodies, and transverse processes
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What characterizes the lumbar vertebrae?
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Largeness, long, plate-like transverse processes & no costal facets
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What is the articulation between the sacrum and the hip bones?
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Sacroiliac joint
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How many lumbar vertebrae do carnivores have?
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7
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How many thoracic vertebrae do carnivores have?
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13
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What is a sacral crest?
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Fused spinous processes of sacrum
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What joint is formed by the atlas and the skull?
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Atlanto-occipital joint; "yes" joint
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The articulation of the axis with the atlas is known as the ____ joint.
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Atlantoaxial joint; "no" joint
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What are the funcitonal classifications of joints?
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Immovable, slightly movable, and freely movable
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Name the fibrocartilages between the bodies of adjacent vertebrae.
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Intervertebral discs
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What are the two parts of an intervertebral disc?
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Annulus fibrosus and nucleus pulposus
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Of what does a typical intervertebral articulation consist?
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Symphyseal (intervertebral disc) + synovial (cranial and caudal articular processes)
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How much motion do individual intervertebral joints allow?
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Little motion
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How much motion do all the joints of the spinal column allow?
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Great motion
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What elastic connective tissue structure attaches the 1st thoracic spine to the spine of the axis (C2) in the dog?
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Nuchal ligament
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What connective tissue caps the spinous processes of the back?
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Supraspinous ligament
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What domestic carnivores have nuchal ligaments?
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Dogs do, cats don't
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What long connective tissue band is on the ventral spinal column?
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Ventral longitudinal ligament
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Where is the dorsal longitudinal ligament located?
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On the floor of the vertebral canal, dorsal to bodies
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What elastic tissue fills the dorsal space (interarcuate space) between the arches of adjacent vertebrae?
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Ligamentum flavum, interacruate or yellow ligament
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What connects the heads of a pair of opposite ribs, crossing the dorsal part of the intervertebral discs?
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Intercapital ligament
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What are the two paired "strap muscles" of the neck?
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Sternohyoideus and sternothyroideus mm.
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What muscles bound the external jugular vein?
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Brachiocephalicus and sternocephalicus mm.
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What structures are related to the strap muscles?
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Superficially skin, deep trachea
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Name the muscle extending from the sternum to the head.
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Sternocephalicus m.
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What forms "envelopes" around the muscles of the neck?
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Deep fascia of neck
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Describe the path of sternothyroideus mm. up the neck.
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Diverge slightly lateral to sternohyoideus mm. to insert on side of thyroid cartilages
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What muscles are above the transverse processes of the vertebrae?
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Epaxial mm.
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What is the thoracolumbar fascia?
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Deep fascia of thoracolumbar region of back
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What muscles of the thoracic limb to other parts of the body?
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Extrinsic mm. of thoracic limb
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Name the two major epaxial muscles of the back.
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Iliocostalis and longissimus mm.
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What muscles are below the vertebrae's transvers processes?
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Hypaxial mm.
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What vessels join to form the external jugular vein?
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Linguofacial and maxillary vv.
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Where is the common carotid artery located?
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Beside the trachea in the carotid sheath
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What is the direct continuation of the median sacral artery ventral in the tail and passing through the hemal arches?
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Median caudal a.
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What glandular structures are under the omotransversarius m. just cranial to the shoulder?
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Superficial cervical lymph nodes
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List two important structures enclosed in the carotid sheath.
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Common carotid a., vagosympathetic trunk (also: internal jugular v., tracheal lymphatic ducts, recurrent laryngeal n.)
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Where is the esophagus located in the middle of the neck?
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Left
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What is the musculocartilatinous structure at the proximal end of the trachea?
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Larynx
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What is the gland just caudal to the larynx on the trachea?
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Thyroid gland
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What are the small, white structures embedded in the thyroid gland?
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Parathyroid gland
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What is the large lumph node structure lateral to the larynx/pharynx?
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Medial retropharyngeal lymph node
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What happens to the thymus with age?
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It involutes
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Where is the common carotid artery located?
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Beside the trachea in the carotid sheath
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What is the direct continuation of the median sacral artery ventral in the tail and passing through the hemal arches?
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Median caudal a.
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What glandular structures are under the omotransversarius m. just cranial to the shoulder?
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Superficial cervical lymph nodes
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List two important structures enclosed in the carotid sheath.
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Common carotid a., vagosympathetic trunk (also: internal jugular v., tracheal lymphatic ducts, recurrent laryngeal n.)
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Where is the esophagus located in the middle of the neck?
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Left
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Where is the common carotid artery located?
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Beside the trachea in the carotid sheath
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What is the musculocartilatinous structure at the proximal end of the trachea?
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Larynx
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What is the direct continuation of the median sacral artery ventral in the tail and passing through the hemal arches?
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Median caudal a.
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What is the gland just caudal to the larynx on the trachea?
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Thyroid gland
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What glandular structures are under the omotransversarius m. just cranial to the shoulder?
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Superficial cervical lymph nodes
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What are the small, white structures embedded in the thyroid gland?
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Parathyroid gland
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List two important structures enclosed in the carotid sheath.
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Common carotid a., vagosympathetic trunk (also: internal jugular v., tracheal lymphatic ducts, recurrent laryngeal n.)
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Where is the esophagus located in the middle of the neck?
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Left
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What is the large lumph node structure lateral to the larynx/pharynx?
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Medial retropharyngeal lymph node
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What is the musculocartilatinous structure at the proximal end of the trachea?
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Larynx
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What happens to the thymus with age?
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It involutes
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What is the gland just caudal to the larynx on the trachea?
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Thyroid gland
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What are the small, white structures embedded in the thyroid gland?
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Parathyroid gland
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What is the large lumph node structure lateral to the larynx/pharynx?
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Medial retropharyngeal lymph node
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What happens to the thymus with age?
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It involutes
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Where is the common carotid artery located?
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Beside the trachea in the carotid sheath
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What is the direct continuation of the median sacral artery ventral in the tail and passing through the hemal arches?
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Median caudal a.
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What glandular structures are under the omotransversarius m. just cranial to the shoulder?
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Superficial cervical lymph nodes
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List two important structures enclosed in the carotid sheath.
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Common carotid a., vagosympathetic trunk (also: internal jugular v., tracheal lymphatic ducts, recurrent laryngeal n.)
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Where is the esophagus located in the middle of the neck?
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Left
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What is the musculocartilatinous structure at the proximal end of the trachea?
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Larynx
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What is the gland just caudal to the larynx on the trachea?
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Thyroid gland
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What are the small, white structures embedded in the thyroid gland?
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Parathyroid gland
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What is the large lumph node structure lateral to the larynx/pharynx?
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Medial retropharyngeal lymph node
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What happens to the thymus with age?
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It involutes
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What is the part of the hyoid apparatus crossing the midline?
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basihyoid bone
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What is the cartilaginous tube deep to strap mm.?
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Trachea
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Describe the relationship of the esophagus to the trachea?
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Dorsal to larynx and trachea, mid neck: left; thoracic inlet and thorax: dorsal postion
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How is the nervous system (NS) divided functionally? And structurally?
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Functionally: somatic and autonomic (ANS) nervous systems
Structurally: Central (CNS) and peripheral (PNS) nervous system |
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How is the nervous system organized segmentally?
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Spinal and cranial nn. and segments of the CNS from which they arrive
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What do afferent and efferent neurons carry?
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Afferent: sensory (afferent) information from the periphery to the CNS and up to higher centers;
Efferent: motor from CNS to the periphery to muscles and glands. |
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What are the two types of neurons of the somatic (skeletal muscle/skin) motor nervous system and shere are they located?
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UMN (upper motor neurons) in CNS and LMN (lower motor neurons) nerves extending away from the CNS
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What are carried in the ascending and descending tracts of the spinal cord?
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Ascending: sensory
Descending: motor |
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What are aggregations of nerve cell bodies in the CNS? PNS?
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CNS: nucleus
PNS: ganglion |
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What is gray and white matter?
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Gray: neuronal cell bodies in nervous tissue
White: myelinated nerve fibers in nervous tissue |
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What is a nerve and nerve tracts of fasciculi?
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Nerve: bundle of nerve processes outside CNS,
Nerve tracts: nerve fiber bundles of common origin in the brain and spinal cord |
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What part of the CNS is located in the vertebral canal?
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Spinal cord
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Name the five divisions of the spinal cord
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Cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and caudal
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Where do a pair of spinal nerves arise?
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Spinal cord segment
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What is the central "H"-shaped mass of a spinal cord cross section?
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Gray matter (cell bodies give color)
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Of what does white matter of the spinal cord consist?
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Myelinated axons running up and down the cord
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What are ascending tracks of the spinal cord and what do they carry?
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Myelinated afferent axons, sensory information
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What are the descending tracks of the spinal cord and what do they carry?
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Myelinated axons of upper motor neurons (UMN), motor fibers
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Into what is the white matter of the spinal cord divided?
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Into columns or funiculi
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What is the tapered terminal end of the spinal cord?
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Conus medullaris
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Whre does the spinal cord end in the dog? Cat? Horse? Humans?
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Dog: L6 (6-7)
Cat: S1-3 Horse: S2 Humans: L2 |
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Within which vertebra do sacral segments 1-3 lie?
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5th lumbar vertebrae
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What causes the spinal to be shorter than the vertebral canal?
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Differential growth rate.
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Why don't all spinal cord segments lie "over" the corresponding vertebral body?
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Spinal cord stops growing before vertebral column does
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What structure is formed by the nerves leaving the caudal spinal cord to exit caudally?
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Cauda equina
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What demarcates a spinal cord segment?
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Pair of spinal nn. arising from it
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Are spinal nerves lower or upper motor neurons?
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LMN
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Is the musculocutaneous nerve an upper of lower motor neuron?
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LMN
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What does the efferent neuron of a reflex arc connect?
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Spinal cord with muscles or glands
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The lower motor neuron can be _____ active
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Spontaneously
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What are upper motor neurons (UMN)?
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Neurons connecting brain with LMN
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What do UMN connect?
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Higher centers (brain) with LMN
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Where are upper motor neuron fibers of the spinal cord located?
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Passing in descending motor tracts
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What is the function of MOST UMN?
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Inhibit spontaneous activity of LMN until an action desired.
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What do UMN do when a specific action is desired?
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Stimulate LMN of reflex arcs to produce a programmed action
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What are the ascending sensory tracts of the spinal cord?
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Sensory (afferent) fibers passing up cord to higher centers in cord and brain.
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What type of information do sensory (afferent) neurons carry?
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Pain, temperature, touch, pressure and proprioception
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What is the function of proprioceptive fibers?
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Sense position of body parts to each other and to environment.
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Where are the receptors of proprioceptive fibers located?
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Muscles, tendons, and joints (skin, fascia)
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Over what structures do proprioceptive fibers travel?
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Peripheral nn., spinal cord, brain stem to cerebellum and cerebrum
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What does the cerebral cortex do with proprioceptive information?
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Interprets and sends motor information to reflex arc to adjust POSTURE.
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The _____ uses proprioceptive information to coordinate posture and movement.
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Cerebellum
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Where is the lesion if proprioception is lost?
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Peripheral nn, spinal cord, brain stem, cerebrum or cerebellum
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How is proprioception evaluated clinically?
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Postural reactions (e.g. knuckle paw)
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What structures carry superficial and deep pain sensory fibers?
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Peripheral n., spinal cord, brain stem, and cerebrum
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What is a dermatome? Autonomous zone?
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Area of skin innervated by a nerve, only 1 spinal n. respectively
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How can knowing the spinal segments innervating myotomes and dermatomes be used clinically?
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Used to localize lesions
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What is a myotome?
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Muscle of muscle group innervated by a spinal nerve (LMN)
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Ventral branches of spinal nerves interlace to form ____.
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Plexuses
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What important nerve arises form the brachial plexus to supply the diaphragm?
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Phrenic n.
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What nerve travels along the dorsal border of the omotransversarius m.?
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Accessory n. (CrN 11)
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What plexus supplies some of the extrinsic and all of the intrinsic muscles of the thoracic limb?
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Brachial
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Plexuses are formed by the ventral branches of spinal nerves in every region except which?
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Thorax (except T1-2)
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The ventral branches of the thoracic nerves T3-13 do not form a plexus, but pass in the intercostal spaces as ____ nerves.
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Intercostal nn.
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What plexus supplies the abdominal wall, pelvic limb, external genitalia, rump, and perineum?
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Lumbosacral plexus
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What type of fibers do the dorsal and ventral roots contain?
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Dorsal: sensory
Ventral: motor |
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What is the swelling of the dorsal root and what does it contain?
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Dorsal root ganglion, sensory nerve cell bodies - pseudounipolar
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What forms the spinal nerve? Into what do spinal nerves divide?
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Roots (dors. and vent.), branches (dors. and ventr.)
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How do spinal nerves leave the vertebral canal?
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Through the intervertebral foramen
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How do fibers in the spinal nerve communicate with the periphery?
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By dorsal and ventral branches
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What are the two main branches of spinal nerves? What do they carry?
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Dorsal and ventral branches;
mixed: motor and sensory fibers |
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What do motor nerves in the dorsal and ventral branches supply?
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Dorsal:mm dorsal to transverse processes,
Ventral: mm ventral to TP |
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What spinal nerve branches supply sensation from the skin of the abdominal wall?
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Dorsal: upper flank (including area below transverse process),
Ventral: rest |
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Where do spinal nerves leave the vertebral canal?
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Through intervertebral foramina caudal to vertebrae of same number except in cervical region
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What nerves are motor to the ventral cervical muscles except the sternocephalicus and brachiocephalicus (cleidomastoideus)?
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Ventral branches of cervical nn. 2-6
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What nerve passes caudally on side of neck to innervate the trapezius muscle? Give 2 names for this nerve.
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Accessory or spinal accessory or CrN 11
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What spinal branch connects the spinal nerve ot the autonomic nervous system?
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Communicating branches
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What are the 3 main branches of spinal nerves?
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Dorsal, ventral, communicating
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What are upper (UMN) and lower motor neurons (LMN)?
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LMN: leave CNS as peripheral nerves
UMN: in CNS affect LMN |
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Where are the cell bodies of UMNs and LMNs located?
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In the brain and spinal cord respectively
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What is the path of lower motor neurons?
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Leave CNS over ventral roots and spinal n. or cranial nn. to periphery
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What are the motor parts of reflex arcs?
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Lower motor neurons (LMN)
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For what are UMNs responsible?
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Initiating and maintaining conscious movements and for tone in extensor muscles to maintain posture
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The excitatory UMNs, under normal conditions, are kept _____.
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Inactive
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Under normal conditions, what is the function of the UMNs in descending tracts?
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Inhibit LMN activity
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LMNs are ______ ______ without the input of UMNs.
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Spontaneously active
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What are the meninges?
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Three connective tissue sheathes surrounding CNS (brain and spinal cord)
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List the meninges from outer to inner.
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Dura mater, arachnoid, and pia mater
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List the spaces that are related to the meninges.
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Epidural: between dura mater and periosteum
Subdural: potential space between dura mater and arachnoid Subarachnoid space: between the arachnoid and pia (CSF) |
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What fills the epidural space? Subdural? Subarachnoid?
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E: Loose connective tissue, fat, and blood vessels
SD: nothing SA: CSF |
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In what space does cerebral spinal fluid circulate in?
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Subarachnoid space
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What cavity is between the dura mater and the vertebral canal wall?
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Epidural space
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What are the lateral exgensions of the pai mater out to the dura mater between successive nerve origins / rootlest?
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Denticulate ligament (anchor cord laterally)
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What is the fibrous cord derived from the pia mater extending form the conus through the rest of the vertebral canal?
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Filum terminale
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How is the spinal cord anchored cranially?
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Dura mater continuous with periosteum at foramen magnum
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What is formed by the dora mater and arachnoid extending further caudally than the conus medullaris?
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Lumbar cistern
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What is contained in the lumbar cistern?
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CSF (cerebrospinal fluid)
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List two things back radiograph preparation are evaluated for.
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Area of interest centered in the film.
- No rotation in the standard projections: - VD (ventrodorsal): the sternum should be superimposed over the spine - Lateral projection: the costochondral junctions of each side should overlap |
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How are the dorsal and ventral edges of the vertebral canal checked in back radiographs?
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Check for alignment, they should be two straight lines without step defects.
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How are the intervertebral disc spaces in back radiographs evaluated?
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Triads (3 adjacent spaces) are compared for size differences.
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Can a normal intervertebral disc be seen in a radiograph?
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No (invisible). Evaluate space they fill.
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How does an intervertebral space further from the center of the film appear? Why?
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Narrower due to divergence of the beam it passes obliquely.
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Which intervertebral spaces can be evaluated for differences in size because of divergence of the primary beam
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The 6 to 8 in the center of the film
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What are the triads when talking about back radiographs?
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The 3 adjacent intervertebral space evaluated and compared at a time.
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Describe the appearance of the intervertebral foramen, considered "windows" to the spinal cord.
|
Look like Snoopy's little bird buddy "Woodstock"
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How do cat's lumbar vertebrae compare to dog's?
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Longer and narrower
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What is the pointed process of the axis that sits in the atlas?
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The dens (odontoid process)
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What is a landmark in a lateral film of the caudal neck?
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"SLEDS" or transverse process of C6
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What is a landmark of the thoracic vertebrae in a lateral film?
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Anticlinal vertebra: upright, usually T11
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What is the injection of a positive contrast medium into the space around the spinal cord (suprarachnoid space)?
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Myelogram
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What is the disease of the cervical vertebrae in large breeds causing stenosis of the vertebral canal resulting in ataxia (unsteady gait)?
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Cervical spondylomyopathy, canine wobbler disease
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What is excessive ventral lumbar curvature?
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Lordosis (swayback)
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What is excessive ventral lumbar curvature?
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Lordosis (swayback)
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What is excessive thoracic curvature?
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Kyphosis (hunchback in humans)
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What is lateral curvature to the spine?
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Scoliosis
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What are the landmarks used for cerebrospinal fluid taps at the atlanto-occipital junction?
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WIngs of atlas, external occipital protuberance
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What clinical problem would a fractured dens cause?
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Spinal cord injury
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Where does the spinal cord end in the dog?
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About L6-7
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What is sacroiliac luxation?
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Separation of the sacrum and ilium
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What is the removal of the right or left dorsal vertebral arch (lamina) to relieve pressure in the spinal canal?
|
Hemilaminectomy
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What is the removal of the dorsal part of the vertebral arch to increase room for the spinal cord?
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Dorsal laminectomy
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What results from twisting or overstretching a joint, causing a ligament to tear or separate from its bony attachment?
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Sprain
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What is inflammation of a busae?
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Bursitis
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A slipped disc results when the soft ____ _____ is squeezed to one side of the disc, causing the firm ____ ____ to protrude and possibly rupture.
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Nucleus pulposus
Annulus fibrosis |
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What can a slipped disc protruding into the vertebral canal compress?
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Spinal nerves or spinal cord itself
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Where is the annulus fibrosis thinnest?
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Dorsally
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Why don't intervertebral disc commonly impinge on nerves in the thoracic region?
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Protection of intercapital ligaments
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What is the removal of the remaining nucleus pulposus from a ruptured disc?
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Disc fenestration
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How would you place a tube for an emergency tracheostomy?
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Skin incision in the ventral neck, separate the mm, cut between the cartilages of the trachea, insert.
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What is analgesia?
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Absence of pain perception
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Define paralysis.
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Complete loss of motor activity
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Define paresis.
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Weakness, partial loss of voluntary motor activity
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What are the suffixes -paresis and -plegia used to describe?
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Paresis and paralysis respectively.
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What is the paresis or paralysis of only one limb?
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Monoparesis or monoplegia
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What is hemiparesis or hemiplegia?
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Paresis or parlysis of both limbs on same side
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What are the terms used to describe paresis or paralysis of all 4 limbs?
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Tetraparesis / quadriparesis or tetraplegia / quadriplegia
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What is paresis or paralysis of only the pelvic limbs?
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Paraparesis or paraplegia
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Differentiate flaccid and spastic paresis or paralysis.
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Flaccid: decreased or no tone in muscles
Spastic: increased tone; hypertonicity |
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What is the definition of proprioception?
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Sensing movements and position of body parts.
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What does contralateral and ipsilateral mean?
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C: opposite side;
I: same side |
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Define tetraparesis
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Weakness of all 4 limbs
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Define hemiparesis
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Weakness of both limbs on 1 side of body
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What is myelogram?
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Radiographs of contrast material in subarachnoid space.
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How do lumbar, sacral, and caudal spinal cord segments and the vertebrae relate?
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They don't correlate with the vertebrae of same number caudal to L4
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Why is it important to know relationship between the lumbar spinal cord segments and the vertebrae they overlie?
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To localize spinal cord lesions
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List the relationship between the lumbar vertebae and the spinal segments
a. L3 vertebra b. L4 vertebra c. L5 vertebra d. L6 vertebra |
a. L3 and Cr. L4 segments
b. Ca. L4, L5, L5, L6 and Cr. L7 segments c. ca. L7, S1-3 d. Ca. 1-5 |
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In small dogs, how does the location of spinal cord segments compare with large dogs?
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1/2 segment more caudal (all of L4 is over L4 vertebrae)
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What are the six major functional regions of the spinal cord?
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Cranial cervical: C1-5
Cervical (brachial) enlargement: C6-T1 Thoracic and cranial lumbar: T2-L3 Lumbar (lumbosacral) enlargement: L4-S2 Sacral: S2-3 Caudal: Ca1-5 |
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What does the cervical enlargement of the spinal cord supply?
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Thoracic limb and diaphragm
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What does the lumbar enlargement of the spinal cord supply?
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Pelvic limb
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What does the sacral region of the spinal cord supply?
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Reflex control of urination, defecation, sexual reflexes, and parasympathetic outflow
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Why can a broken neck result in respiratory paralysis?
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Phrenic nerve to diaphragm arises from brachial plexus
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What is the panniculus (cutaneous trunci) response?
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Contraction of cutaneous trunci muscle in response to touching the side of the animal
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What is the effect of UMNs damage on LMNs?
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LMNs increase their activity
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To where do LMN signs localize the lesion?
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Peripheral nerves or spinal cord or segment of brain stem LMN arises from
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What does pointing your thumb down in LMN damage indicate?
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Everything decreased or disappears
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How do the limbs present when there is UMN damage?
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Extended with spastic paresis or paralysis
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How does spinal cord damage affect the area innervated and areas innervated by the cord caudal to the lesion?
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Dysfunction (LMN signs) and hyperactivity (UMN signs) respectively
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List 4 LMN disease signs (thumb down).
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Decreased or absent tone (hypotonia to atonia)
Decreased to absent reflexes (hypo- to areflexia) Flaccid paralysis Rapid atrophy (neorogenic atrophy) 1 week |
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List 4 UMN disease signs (thumb up)
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Normal to increased muscle tone
Normal to increased reflexes (hyperreflexia) Spastic paresis to paralysis Slow (disuse) atrophy |
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What is Shiff-Sherrington syndrome?
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HYPEREXTENSION of forelimbs with lesions to thoracic spinal cord
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How do all 4 limbs present with Shiff-Sherrington syndrome?
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Hind limb: UMN signs
Forelimb: increased extensor tone |
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What type of sign is the Shiff-Sherrington syndrome prognostically?
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Usually bad
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Which take preference clinically, UMN or LMN signs?
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LMN (UMN signs require intact LMNs)
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Localize the lesions: flaccid paralysis, absent reflexes, tone and rapid atrophy to the pelvic limbs with normal thoracic limb
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L4-S1 spinal cord lesion (area 4) LMN signs to pelvic limbs
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Localize the lesion: spastic paresis, increased reflexes and increased tone to all limbs.
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Leasion cranial to C6 (area 1)
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Localize the lesion: spastic paresis, increased reflexes and tone to the left pelvic limb and flaccid paralysis, decreased reflexes and tone to the left thoracic limb.
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Unilateral C6-T1 on left (LMN: left thoracic and UMN: left pelvic limb)
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Localize lesion: hyperextended thoracic limb, increased reflexes and tone in the pelvic limbs (PL)
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T3-L3 (UMN: pelvic limbs) (area 3);
Shiff-Sherrington: thoracic limbs |
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List presenting signs to transection of the spinal cord:
a. C1-5 spinal cord (area 1) b. Cervical enlargement, C6-T2 (area 2) c. T3-L3 (area 3) d. L4-S1 (area 4) |
a. No LMN signs to either limb.
UMN to all 4 limbs b. LMN to thoracic limb UMN to PL c. No effect on thoracic limb (+/- Shiff-Sherrington). UMN to PL d. No effect on thoracic limb. LMN to PL |
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What nerve fibers are clinically disrupted in peripheral nerve damage?
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LMN (motor fibers) and sensory neurons (sensory fibers).
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List the three parts of assessment of pain.
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a. Presence or location
b. Perception of superficial pain c. Perception of deep pain |
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What do ascending sensory / afferent tracts carry?
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Superficial and deep pain and proprioception.
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When are superficial pain sensory fibers lost with spinal cord damage?
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About the same time as motor fibers
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If superficial pain is perceived, ____ ____ will also be perceived.
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Deep pain
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How is perception of pain evaluated?
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Behavioral change: looking toward stimulus or attempts to bite
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What is the pulling away of the structure (limb) from a stimulus?
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A reflex (withdrawal reflex)
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Does a withdrawal reflex require conscious perception?
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No
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What is indicated if a toe pinch elicits a withdrawal of limb, but no behavioral change?
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Spinal cord or brain stem lesion cranial to reflex center.
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Which are the first sensory fibers to show signs and the last to disappear?
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Deep pain ("first to show, last to go")
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What type of prognostic sign is loss of deep pain?
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Bad prognostic sign.
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When is deep pain evaluated?
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When superficial pain is absent.
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How is deep pain evaluated?
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Increase pressure of superficial pain pinch and watch for perception (attempt to bite.)
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What is usually the first sign in spinal cord compression?
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Loss of proprioception
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How is ataxia of spinal cord damage different than cerebellar ataxia?
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Doesn't know position of limbs, thus, can't adjust them; not incoordination.
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What are the proprioceptive signs of spinal cord compression?
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Base wide stance, knuckling over, delayed initiation of movement.
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For localization, how are losses of proprioception interpreted?
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Same as LMN/UMN signs
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Localize lesion: loss of proprioception in the pelvic limb, normal thoracic limb proprioception.
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Between T1 and S1
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Localize the lesion: loss of proprioception in left pelvic and thoracic limbs
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Unilateral at C6-T1 or above
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Localize the lesion: loss of proprioception to all four limbs
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Lesion at C6-T1 or above
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What is the cutaneous trunci (panniculus) reflex?
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Normal reflex: contraction of cutaneous trunci m. in response to a pin prick of trunk.
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What is the path of the cutaneous trunci (panniculus) reflex?
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Sensation from skin of trunk over thoracic and lumbar spinal nn. to spinal cord, up cord to thoracic spinal nn. to spinal cord, up cord to lateral thoracic n. (C8), out to cutaneous trunci m.
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Where are the dermatomes of the cutaneous trunci response located?
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1 or 2 vertebrae caudal to level of innervating cord segment.
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Where is the lesion if a panniculus response is absent caudally and then appears cranial to a specific point (e.g. transverse plane through L1)?
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In spinal cord up to 2 vertebrae cranially (at T12-13)
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Clinically what is the panniculus response used to evaluate?
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Level of thoracic spinal cord damage.
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What spinal nerves are involved in the panniculus response?
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Thoracic and lumbar nn. (sensory) and lateral thoracic n. from brachial plexus (motor).
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Because spinal nerves pass caudoventrally, skin sensation is associated with what spinal cord segment.
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Segment 2 vertebrae cranial to level of skin
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Where is the spinal cord damage if the panniculus response is absent caudal to 12 thoracic vertebrae?
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Level of T10
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How are problems localized to only one limb?
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Monoparesis / monoparalysis (LMN sign)
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To where does monoparesis localizes a problem?
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Specific nerve roots, nerve or group of nn. or muscles they innervate
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How is peripheral nerve damage evaluated?
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Knowing motor and skin innervation, then mapping the deficits
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Will gait be affected in specific peripheral nerve damage?
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Not usually
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What specific peripheral nerve damage may cause change in gait?
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Radial, femoral, ischiatic, or peroneal nerves.
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What sign will all peripheral nerve damage show?
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Loss of skin sensation to dermatomes they innervate alone.
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Why can a broken neck result in respiratory paralysis?
|
Phrenic nerve to diaphragm arises from brachial plexus
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Where are CSF taps performed?
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Cisterna magna or lumbar cistern.
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Where is a lumbosacral tap performed in the dog and cat?
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L5-6 or forward or back 1 space
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Where is lumbar cistern tapped in the horse, cow, sheep, and pig?
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Lumbosacral space
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What is the enlargement of the subarachnoid space between the medulla oblongata and cerebellum?
|
Cisterna magna (cerebellomedullary cistern)
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What is the articulation between the atlas and the occipital condyles of the occipital bone?
|
Atlanto-occipital joint
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What fills the gap between the dorsal edge of the foramen magnum and the atlas?
|
Dorsal atlanto-occipital membrane
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What may narrowing of the intervertebral space indicate?
|
Protruded disc.
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Which intervertebral spaces can be evaluated for differences in size because of divergence of the primary beam?
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The 6 to 8 in the center of the film
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What sign will all peripheral nerve damage show?
|
Loss of skin sensation to dermatomes they innervate alone.
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Why can a broken neck result in respiratory paralysis?
|
Phrenic nerve to diaphragm arises from brachial plexus
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Where are CSF taps performed?
|
Cisterna magna or lumbar cistern.
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Where is a lumbosacral tap performed in the dog and cat?
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L5-6 or forward or back 1 space
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Where is lumbar cistern tapped in the horse, cow, sheep, and pig?
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Lumbosacral space
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What is the enlargement of the subarachnoid space between the medulla oblongata and cerebellum?
|
Cisterna magna (cerebellomedullary cistern)
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What is the articulation between the atlas and the occipital condyles of the occipital bone?
|
Atlanto-occipital joint
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What fills the gap between the dorsal edge of the foramen magnum and the atlas?
|
Dorsal atlanto-occipital membrane
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What may narrowing of the intervertebral space indicate?
|
Protruded disc.
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Which intervertebral spaces can be evaluated for differences in size because of divergence of the primary beam?
|
The 6 to 8 in the center of the film
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What are the triads when talking about radiographs?
|
The 3 adjacent intervertebral spaces evaluated and compared at a time, so teh effect of divergence of the beam is minimized. Then move over 1 space and compare the 3 adjacent spaces.
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How are the intervertebral foramen compared in back radiographs?
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For differences due to disc space differences.
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What should be evaluated in the area of the axis and atlas?
|
The dens (odontoid process), it should be present and held in the ventral vertebral canal.
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What is a myelogram?
|
Injection of a positive contrast medium into the space around the spinal cord (subarachnoid space / columns)
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How does a myelogram appear?
|
Subarachnoid space lights up and appear as two white lines (columns) separated by a space (the invisible spinal cord)
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How should the contrast lines (columns) in the subarachnoid space appear?
|
Smooth, reflecting the smoothness of the spinal canal
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What are normal variations in the spinal cord that may effect the appearance of a myelogram?
|
Cervical and lumbar enlargements
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Why and how can you move contrast medium up or down the subarachnoid space?
|
Contrast medium heavier than CSF, so use gravity and raise animal
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What is a critical preparation when taking spinal films?
|
Anesthetized animal
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Summarize the appearance of the subarachnoid space in myelograms that help localize the lesion.
|
- Pushed outward thinning: spinal cord lesion
- Pushed inward thinning: outside meninges - Widened and thinned: between the cord and dura mater. |
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|
Describe the following lesions and give an example:
a. Intramedullary (spinal cord) lesion? b. Extramedullary lesion? c. Intradural lesion? |
a. Lesion insed the cord (e.g. intramedullary tumor, intramedullary hemorrhage or edema or a normal cervical or lumbar enlargement).
b. Lesion outside the duramater (e.g. herniated disc, extradural tumor [e.g. neurofibroma, metastatic tumor], or a vertebral body lesion [e.g. healed fracture, neuroplasia]) c. Lesion occurs between the spinal cord and the dura mater (e.g. intradural tumors [neurofibroma, meningiomal]) |
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|
Describe how the following lesions look in a myelogram:
a. Intramedullary (spinal cord) lesion: b. Extramedullary lesion? c. Intradural lesion? |
a. Pushes outward to break or thinning columns. Cord enlargement in all projections.
b. Pushed in thinning or break of columns. Cord +/- pushed away, +/- cord widened in the opposite view. c. WIdening of the column subarachnoid space. Cord +/- pushed away, +/- cord widened in the opposite view |
