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190 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What are the four methods of examining the body?
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auscultation, palpation, percussion, inspection
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What are three subdisciplines of physiology?
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neurophysiology, endocrinology, pathophysiology
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What is the hypothetico-deductive method?
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where the investigator asks a question and formulates a hypothesis and then tests that hypothesis
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What are the 8 levels of hierarchical complexity?
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1) organism
2) organ system 3) organ 4) tissue 5) cells 6) organelles 7) molecules 8) atoms |
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What is the theory of reductionism?
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it is better to study an organism by studying its simple components
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What is the theory of holism?
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it is better to study an organism as a whole
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What 8 features distinguish living from nonliving things?
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1) organization
2) cellular composition 3) metabolism 4) responsiveness and movement 5) homeostasis 6) development 7) reproduction 8) evolution |
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What is homeostasis?
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the body's ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions (detect change, activate mechanisms that oppose it
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Who introduced the idea of homeostasis?
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Walter Cannon and Claude Bernard
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What does loss of homeostatic control cause?
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illness or death! :O
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What is the negative feedback loop?
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the body senses a change and activates mechanisms to reverse it
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What is it called when the negative feedback loop creates homeostasis?
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Dynamic equilibrium
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What is the average called in a negative feedback loop?
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Set point
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What is a positive feedback cycle?
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a self-amplifying cycle that leads to greater change in the same direction
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What are some examples of things that have a positive feedback cycle?
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Childbirth, blood clotting, fever, generation of nerve signals, and protein digestion
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When are most medical terms from?
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1200s
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In anatomical position, how are the forearms?
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supinated
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What is included in the Axial body region?
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head, neck, trunk
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What is included in the Appendicular region?
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upper and lower limbs
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How many organ systems are there?
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11 plus the immune system
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What is biochemistry?
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the study of molecules that compose living organisms
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What four molecules compose living organisms?
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Carbohydrates, fats (lipids)m proteins, and nucleic acids
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What is an element?
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the simplest form of matter to have unique chemical properties
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What is the atomic number of an element?
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the number of protons in its nucleus
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How many known elements are there ?
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118
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How many of the elements have a biological role?
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24
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Which 6 elements make up 98.5% of human body weight?
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nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, phosphorus, and calcium
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What are minerals?
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inorganic elements that make up 4% of body weight
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Who came up with the atomic theory?
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John Dalton
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What is the atomic theory?
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1) all matter is made of atoms, and atoms are indivisible and indestructible
2) all atoms of a given element are identical in mass and properties 3) compounds formed by combination of two or more different kinds of atoms 4) a chemical reaction is a rearrangement of atoms |
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What is the atomic mass of an element?
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# of protons + # of neutrons
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isotope
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varieties of an element that differ only in the number of neutrons and therefore the atomic mass
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radioisotopes
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unstable isotopes that give off radiation
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What did Marie Curie do?
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coined radioactivity, pioneered radiation treatment, and died of radiation poisoning
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What are the 3 types of radiation?
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alpha particles, gamma rays, and beta particles
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alpha particles
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dangerous inside body, cannot penetrate skin
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beta particles
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dangerous inside body, penetrates skin a few mm
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gamma rays
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penetrating and very dangerous
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physical half-life of radioisotopes
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the time it takes for 50% to decay into stable state
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biological half-life of radioisotopes
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time it takes for 1/2 of a radioactive substance to be eliminated from the body
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How much percent of our body weight is water?
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50-70%
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What kind of bond is water?
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polar covalent
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What are the 5 important properties of water?
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1) solvency
2) cohesion 3) adhesion 4) chemical reactivity 5) thermal stability |
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solvent
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has the ability to dissolve other chemicals
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hydrophilic
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dissolves in water easily
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hydrophobic
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does not dissolve in water
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chemical reactivity
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the ability to participate in chemical reactions
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high heat capacity
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the amount of heat it takes to raise the temperature of 1g of a substance by 1degreeC
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calorie
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the amount of heat it takes to raise the temperature of 1g of water by 1degreeC
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How is water an effective coolant?
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water absorbs heat without changing temperature very much
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What is the normal concentration of IV saline?
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8.5g NaCl per liter of solution
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For biological purposes, what measure of concentration is used?
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milligrams per deciliter
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acid
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a proton donor-releases H+ ions in water-decreases pH
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base
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a proton acceptor-accepts H+ ions and releases OH- ions in water-increases pH
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high concentration of H+ ions results in...
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a low pH
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low concentration of H+ ions results in...
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a high pH
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What is pH?
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a measurement of molarity of H+ on a logarithmic scale, the negative log of the concentration
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A change of one number on the pH scale is equivalent to...
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A ten-fold change in H+ concentration
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buffers
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they work in your body to resist changes in pH levels
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What is the normal range of pH of blood
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7.35 to 7.45
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deviation from the normal pH of blood can cause what?
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tremors, paralysis, and even death
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What are the three classes of chemical reactions?
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decomposition, exchange, and synthesis
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Decomposition
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large molecule breaks down into 2 or more smaller ones
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Synthesis
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two or more small molecules combine to form larger ones
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exchange
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two molecules exchange atoms or group of atoms
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Reversible reactions
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can go both ways
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What are three things that can affect reaction rates?
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catalysts, concentration, and temperature
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concentration effect on reaction rates
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reaction rates increase when concentration is increased
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temperature effect on reaction rates
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reaction rates increase when temperature increases
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catalyst effect on reaction rates
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these substances bond temporarily to reactants and hold them in a favorable position to react with each other
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catabolism reaction
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energy releasing (exergonic)
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anabolism reaction
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energy storing (endergonic)
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what are the four categories of carbon compounds?
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lipids, proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids
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macromolecule
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large organic molecule
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polymer
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made up of monomers
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monomer
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singular subunits
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polymerization
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joining movements to form a polymer
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dehydration synthesis
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removing water from monomers
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hydrolysis
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adding water to break polymer into monomer
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what kind of bond occurs when monomers bond to form a polymer with the removal of water?
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covalent
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Are carbohydrates hydrophobic or hydrophilic?
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hydrophilic
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what is the structure of a carb?
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(CH20)n where n is number of atoms
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monosaccharides
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simple sugars
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what are the 3 important monosaccharides?
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glucose
galactose fructose |
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disaccharide
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two monosaccharides
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what are the 3 important disaccharides?
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1)sucrose (glucose + fructose)-table sugar
2) maltose (glucose + glucose)-grain sugar 3)lactose (glucose +galactose)-milk sugar |
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polysaccharides
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long chains of glucose
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What are the 3 polysaccharides important to humans?
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1) glycogen (animals)
2) cellulose (plant cell walls-important in diet) 3) starch-plants (only significant digestible sugar for humans) |
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function of carbs?
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quick mobilized source of energy-glucose is turned into ATP
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Are lipids hydrophobic or hydrophilic?
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hydrophobic
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what three elements compose lipids?
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carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen
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why do lipids have less calories per gram than carbs?
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because lipids are less oxidized than carbs
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What are the 5 primary lipids in humans?
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fatty acids, triglycerides, eicosanoids, steroids, and phospholipids
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what are triglycerides composed of?
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3 fatty acids bonded to 3 carbon alcohol glycerol molecule
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what are fatty acids composed of?
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chain of 4-24 carbon atoms, methyl group on one end and carboxyl group on other end, hydrogen bonded on both sides
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what are the four categories of fatty acids?
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saturated (saturated with hydrogen), unsaturated (C=C bond with no hydrogen), polyunsaturated (many C=C bonds), and essential (obtained from diet since body cannot synthesize)
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function of triglycerides?
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insulation, energy storage, shock absorption
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phospholipids
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similar to triglycerides but one fatty acid is replace by a phosphate group
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phospholipids are ampiphillic, which means what?
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they have hydrophobic tails and hydrophilic heads
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eicosanoids
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20 carbon compounds derived from fatty acid called arachodonic acid
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steroids
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lipid with 17 of its carbon atoms in 4 rings
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cholesterol (kind of steroid)
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the parent steroid from which other steroids are synthesized
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What does good and bad cholesterol actually refer to?
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droplets of licoprotein in the body
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good cholesterol
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high density licoprotein
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bad cholesterol
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low density licoprotein
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what is a protein?
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a polymer of amino acids that has a cental carbon with 3 attachements (amino, carboxyl, radical)
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peptide bond
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a polymer of amino acids created by dehydration synthesis
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how many amino acids in a polymer does protein have?
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50+
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what are the four structures of a protein?
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primary-sequence of amino acids
secondary-betasheets, alpha helix tertiary-how does the protein fold quaternary-is the protein made up of subunits |
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what halts ATP synthesis?
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cyanide
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what two nucleotides are there in addition to ATP
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GTP (guanisine triphosphate) and cAMP (cyclic adenosen monophosphate)
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what are the three components of nucleotides?
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nitrogenous base, phosphates, and sugars
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what is ATP composed of?
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adenine, ribose, and 3 phosphate groups
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what is responsible for the structural and functional properties of a living organism
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cells
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cytology
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the study of cells
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What are the 5 components of the modern cell theory?
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1) all organisms are composed of cells
2)organisms structure and function comes from its cells 3) cells only come from pre-existing cells 4) the cell is the simplest structural and functional unit of life 5) cells of all species have many fundamental similarities in chemical composition |
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What are the 9 cell shapes?
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squamous, cuboidal, columnar, polygonal, stellate, spheroid, discoid, fusiform (spindle shaped), fibrous
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how large are most human cells?
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10-15 micrometers in diameter
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the surface area of a cell is proportional to what?
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the square of its diameter
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the volume of a cell is proportional to what?
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the cube of its diameter
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what can a light microscope see?
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plasma membrane, nucleus, and cytoplasm
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what is cytoplasm?
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the fluid between the nucleus and surface area of a membrane
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what can you see with an electron microscope?
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the ultrastructure-organelles, cytoskeleton, cytosol (intracellular fluid)
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What are the components of a cell?
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1) plasma membrane-cell boundary made of proteins and lipids
2) cytoplasm-contains ICF and organelles 3) ECF-extracellular fluid |
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which side is the intracellular face of the plasma membrane?
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the side that faces the cytoplasm
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which side is the extracellular face of plasma membrane?
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the side that faces the outside of cell
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What kind of layer is the plasma membrane?
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a phospholipid bilayer-an oily film of lipids with diverse proteins embedded
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98% of the molecules in the plasma membrane are
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lipids!
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75% of the lipids in the plasma membrane are called what?
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ampiphilic molecules: hydrophilic hears and hydrophobic tails
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what is the glycocalyx?
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carbohydrate coating on cell surface-fuzzy coat outside of the plasma membrane
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What are the two membrane proteins?
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transmembrane-pass through the membrane
peripheral-adhere to one face of the membrane |
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what are 7 functions of membrane proteins?
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1) receptors
2) second-messenger systems 3) enzymes 4) ion channels 5) carriers 6) cell-identity markers 7) cell adhesion molecules |
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When is a second messenger needed?
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when the initial message does not enter a cell, a 2nd messenger is used-the initial message goes to cAMP and cAMP acts as a second messenger
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what does cAMP activate in the cytosol during the 2nd messenger process?
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a kinase
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What converts ATP into cAMP to act as the second messenger?
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adenylate cyclase
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During the 2nd messenger process, what relays the message signal to the adenylate cyclase?
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G protein
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What are some functions of the glycocalyx?
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protection, cell adhesion, immunity to infection, fertilization, defense against cancer, embryonic development, and transplant compatibility
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What are the extensions of the cellular membrane that increase cell surface area?
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microvilli
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what is the brush border?
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actin microfilaments on the cell surface used for movement
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what are cilia?
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hairlike processes on the cell surface
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what are motile cilia
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they beat in waves, sweep substances across surface in same direction, and have power and recovery strokes
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axoneme of the cilia?
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the core that has a 9+2 structure of microtubules
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flagella
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snakelike movement with no power or recovery stroke, whiplike structure with axoneme identical to cilium
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what is the only functional flagellum in humans?
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sperm
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what is passive transport?
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transport that requires no ATP
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what are the three kinds of passive transport?
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filtration, diffusion, and osmosis
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what is active transport?
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consumes ATP
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what are the two kinds of active transport?
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active and vesicular
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what is the permeability of the plasma membrane?
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selective
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what are carrier mediated mechanisms?
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they use membrane proteins to transport substances from one side of the membrane to other
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filtration
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particles are driven through a selectively permeable membrane by hydrostatic pressure
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simple diffusion
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net movement of particles from an area of high concentration to area of low concentration (down the concentration gradient)
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how do cells control permeability in simple diffusion?
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by regulating the number of channel proteins or by opening and closing gates
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why are channels needed in order to move hydrophilic particles?
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because hydrophilic particles cannot move through by simple diffusion
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osmosis
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the flow of water from one side of a selectively permeable membrane to the other -from the side with higher water concentration to side with lower water concentration
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What are aquaporins?
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channel proteing in the plasma membrane specialized for passage of water
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what is osmotic pressure?
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pressure required to stop osmosis across a semipermeable membrane
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what is tonicity?
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a measure of osmotic pressure-the ability of a solution to affect fluid volume and pressure in a cell
if hypertonic-greater if isotonic-same if hypotonic-less |
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hypertonic solution
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has a higher concentration ,when there is a low water concentration and cells lose water and shrivel (crenate)
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isotonic solution (normal saline)
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concentration in cell and ICF are same, causes no changes in cell volume of cell shape
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hypotonic solutuion
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has a lower concentration, when there is a high water concentration the cells will absorb the water-swells and may burst (lyse)
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what is carrier mediated transport?
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to employ a transport protein or carrier
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facilitated diffusion (passive)
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down its concentration gradient and does not consume ATP
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active transport
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transport of solute through a membrane against its concentration gradient-ATP is used
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What two factors determine the carriers of carrier mediated transport?
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1) specificity-they transport proteins for a certain ligand
2) saturation-have a transport maximum |
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What are the three kinds of carriers based on saturation?
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uniport-one kind of molecule
symport-2 kinds going in the same direction antiport-2 kinds going in the opposite direction |
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What kind of carrier is a sodium potassium pump?
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an antiport transporter
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What is vesicular transport?
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requires ATP-process that moves large particles, fluid droplets, or numerous molecules at one through the membrane in vesicles
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endocytosis
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a vesicular process that brings material into the cell (phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and receptor mediated endocytosis)
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phagocytosis
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cell takes in particulate matter
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pinocytosis
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cell takes in solutes dissolves in extracellular fluid
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receptor mediated endocytosis
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specific molecules are taken in after they bind to a receptor
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exocytosis
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occurs when material is discharged from the cell (vesicles in the cytoplasm fuse with the cell membrane)
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What are the structures in the cytoplasm of a cell?
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organelles, cytoskeleton, and inclusions that are all embedded in cytosol
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What is the cytoskeleton?
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a collection of microfilaments and cylinders that determines the shape of cell and lends structural support
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What is the cytoskeleton composed of?
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microfilaments, microtubules, and intermediate fibers
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What are 6 membranous organelles?
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1) nucleus
2) mitochondria 3) lysosomes 4) peroxisomes 5) ER 6) golgi complex |
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What are 4 nonmembranous organelles?
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1) ribosomes
2) centrosomes 3) centrioles 4) basal bodies |
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what is the nucleus?
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the largest organelle in the cell-most cells have one nucleus
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what is the nuclear envelope?
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two unit membranes surrounding the nucleus
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what is the nucleoplasm?
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material in the nucleus (chromatin and nucleoli)
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what are nucleoli
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one or more dark masses in the nucleoplasm
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What is the endoplasmic reticulum composed of?
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Rough ER and smooth ER
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what is the rough ER?
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covered with ribosomes and synthesizes proteins
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What is the smooth ER?
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synthesizes steroids and other lipids
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Ribosomes
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small granules composed of protein and RNA that assemble amino acids into proteins
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what is the golgi complex?
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synthesizes carbs and puts the finishing touches on protein and glycoprotein synthesis
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Lysosomes
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have enzymes that digest proteins
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mitochondria
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organelles specialized for synthesizing ATP from organic molecules (THE POWER HOUSE CELL)
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centrioles
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play a role in cell division
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