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132 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Palpation
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Feeling an organ with your hands
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Auscultation
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Listening to organ sounds with stethoscope
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Percussion
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Tapping the body to feel for abnormal resistance
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Homeostasis
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The ability to maintain internal constancy
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Atomic Number
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When identifying an element, the number of protons in its nucleus is the atomic number
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Atomic Mass
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of an element is approximately equal to its total number of protons/neurons (mass of an atom)
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Isotopes
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different types of atoms (nuclides) of the same chemical element.
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Molecule
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are chemical particles composed of two or more atoms united by a chemical bond
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Compound
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Molecules that are composed of two or more different elements
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what do Buffers do
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they keep pH solutions at the level they are suppose to, they keep them from changing.( A change in your pH could be fatal)
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Solute
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the dissolved matter in a solution; the component of a solution that changes its state
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Solvent
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a liquid substance capable of dissolving other substances; the solvent does not change its state in forming a solution
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What do Monomers make up?
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1) Proteins: made up of amino acids
2) Carbs: made up of monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, and galactose) 3) Lipids: made up of fatty acids and glycerol (triglycerides, phospholipids, eicosandoids, and steriods. |
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Carbs are used to...?
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mainly to help give the body fast energy.
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Protiens do what?
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Build up, maintains, and replaces the tissues in your body (creates hemoglobin etc)
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Lipids:
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help produce energy and control our vitamin and hormone usage
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6 Levels of the Hierarchy Body Level
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1) Chemical (atoms, molecules)
2)Cellular (smooth muscle cell) 3) Tissue (smooth muscle tissue) 4) Organ (Stomach) 5) System (digestive system) 6) Organism |
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Mitochondria
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provides the cell with energy by oxidizing biological fuels (lipids, proteins, glucose) into ATP (Aerobically)
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Nucleus:
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Genetic control center of cell; directs protein synthesis; shelters the DNA
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Endoplasmic Reticulum
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Where proteins and lipids are produced and synthesized and it manufactures all membranes of the cell, detoxification and calcium storage
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Lysosome
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Contain enzymes for intracellular digestion, autophagy, programmed cell death, and glucose mobilization.
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Simple Diffusion
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Movement of particles from HIGH concentration to LOW concentration
- Filtration: movement of particles through a selectively permeable membrane (hydrostatic pressure) |
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Facilitated Diffusion:
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Transport of solute across membrane DOWN its concentration gradient (no ATP used)
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Active Transport:
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Moves material against concentration gradient (e.g sodium-potassium pump)(requires ATP)
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Osmosis:
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diffusion of water through a membrane - from area of more water to area of less water
- aquaporins: channel proteins through which the water moves. |
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Nucleotide
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an organic molecule composed of a nitrogenous base, a monosaccharide, and a phosphate group; at the monomer of a nucleic acid
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3 DIFFERENCES between DNA and RNA
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1) DNA is double stranded; RNA is single stranded
2) The ribose sugar in DNA has less oxygen that in RNA 3) The base "Thymine" in DNA is replaced with "Uracil" in RNA |
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3 SIMILARITIES between DNA and RNA
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1) Both have a sugar linked to a phosphate group at one end and a nitrogenous base at the other end
2) both have a plymer of nucleotides 3) both contain Adenine, Cytosine, and Guanine |
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Nitrogenous bases pair up by:
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Adenine bonding with Thymine and Guanine binds with Cytosine
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Replication:
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Dupication of DNA (occurs in cell division/cell's nucleous) results in 2 identical double stranded DNA molecules
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Transcription
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occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell. Result is DNA is converted to a strand of mRNA to be translated in the ribosome
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Translation
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occurs in the ribosome in cytosol or on rough ER, in the nucleus and eukaryote cells. Translates to a polypeptide. Results in a new protein.
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Different stages of the Cell Cycle
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A) Interphase
1) G1 Phase->Growth phase 2) S phase -> DNA replication 3) G2 Phase/ Second Gap Phase - replicates centroiles - syntheizes enzymes for division B) Mitotic Phase: nuclear division/ cytoplasmic division 1) G0 phase/M phase: cells that have left the cycle |
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(Four Types of tissue in the body)
1) Epithelial: |
tissue composed of layers of closely spaced cells that cover organ surfaces, form glands, and serve for protection, secretion, and absorption.
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(Four Types of Tissues in the body)
2) Connective: |
Tissue with more matrix than cell volume, often specialized to support, bind together, and protect organs.
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(Four Types of Tissues)
3) Nervous: |
Tissue containing excitable cells specialized for rapid transmission of coded information to other cells.
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(Four types of Tissues)
4) Muscular: |
Tissue composed of elongated, excitable cells specialized for contraction.
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Simplified Epithelia:
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Single layer of cells
1) lines body cavities, ducts, and tubes 2) Function: diffusion, absorption, secretion, filtration |
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Stratified Epithelia:
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more than one cell layer
A) Functions: protection, e.g., surface of the skin |
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3 Components of connective Tissue:
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1) Connective tissue proper: have a variety of cells and extracellular fibers in a ground substance (matrix)
- Loose connective tissue: adipose tissue - Dense Connective Tissues 2) Fluid connective tissue: cells dissolved in watery mix that contains dissolved proteins - blood - lymph 3) Supporting connective tissue: less diversity of cell types and much more densely packed fibers - cartilage - bone |
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Skeletal Muscle Tissues
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a) very large muscle multinucleated cells called muscle fibers
b) contains actin and myosin filaments (contractile protein) c) voluntary contraction |
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Smooth Muscle Tissues
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a) Small, spindle-shaped cells with a single central nucleus
b) non-striated appearance c) involuntary contraction |
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Cardiac Muscle Tissue
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a) straited muscle limited to the heart
b) branched cells interconnected at intercalated discs c) involuntary contraction |
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Functions of the Skin (7)
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1) Protection
2) Excretion 3) UV rays: 4) Synthesis of Vit D 5) Sensation 6) Thermoregulation 7) Non-verbal Communication |
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*Abnormalities of Skin
- Cyanosis |
"blueness" of the skin due to O2 deficiency in circulating blood, especially in cold weather
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*Abnormalities of the skin
- Erythema |
abnormal redness, e.g., exercise, anger, weather, embarrassment, sunburns
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*Abnormalities of the skin
- Pallor |
Pale color due to little blood flowing through the skin
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*Abnormalities of the skin
- Albinism |
Genetic condition due to lack of melanin
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*Abnormalities of the skin
- Jaundice |
yellowing of the skin and whites of the eye due to high levels of bilirubin from hemoglobin breakdown
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*Abnormalities of the skin
- Hematoma or Bruise |
Mass of clotted blood showing through skin
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Three types of skin cancer
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1) Basal cell carinoma: most common and least dangerous type (seldom metastaizes) it arises from cells of stratum basale
2) Squamous cell carcinoma: arises from keratinocytes of stratum spinosum 3) Malignant melanoma: arises from melanocytes, often in a mole. Metastasizes quickly and is the most deadly form. |
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6 Functions of the skeletal system:
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a) Support
b) Protection c) Movement d) Electrolyte Balance e) Acid-Base balance f) Blood formation |
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*Organic and Inorganic Matter in Bone Tissue:
- Inorganic |
a) Hydroxypatite (85%) crystallized form of calcium phosphate salt (strength)
b) Calcium Carbonate (10%) and have less amounts of magnesium, sodium, potassium, fluoride...etc) |
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*Organic and Inorganic Matter in Bone Tissue:
- Organic |
a) Collagen Fibers (provide flexibility
b) Mixture of glycoprotein's |
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- Osteogenic Cells
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Stem cells that give rise to other types of bone cells
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Osteoblasts
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bone-forming cells
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Osteocytes
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trapped osteoblasts
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Osteoclasts
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bone dissolving cells
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Hormones that influence bone growth
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a) Calcitrol - for calcium and phosphate absorption in the GI
b) Growth Hormone: stimulate bone growth c) Gonadotropic Hormones: promote faster bone growth at puberty |
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Synovial Joints
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are two bones that are separated by a joint cavity. They permit a greater range of motion then other joints.
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Strength and Range of Motion
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Strength and tautness of ligaments, tendons, and capsule: stretching of ligaments increases range of motion. They need to be strong so that when they do stretch out they won't tear etc. thus increasing the range.
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Arthritis:
- Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) |
causes reduction in joint mobility, pain, stiffness, and generalized pain on both sides of the body.
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Neuromuscular Junction:
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A functional connection between the distal end of a nerve fiber an the middle of a muscle fiber.
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What does Neuromuscular Junction involve?
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a) synaptic knob: the dilated tip of a nerve fiber; contains synaptic vesicles
b) synaptic cleft: a gap of about 60-100 nm between the synaptic knob and sarcolemma c) synaptic vesicle: a secretory vesicle in the synaptic knob; contains ACh d) Junctional folds: invaginations of the sarcolemma where ACh receptors are especially concentrated e) ACh: the neurotransmitter released by a somatic motor fiber that stimulates a skeletal muscle fiber f) ACh receptor: a transmembrane protein in the sarcolemma of the neuromuscular junction that binds to ACh g) Acetylcholinesterase: an enzyme in the sarcolemma and basal lamina of the muscle fiber in the synaptic region; responsible for degrading ACh and stopping the stimulation of the muscle fiber. |
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Sarcomere
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The distance from one Z disc to the next; the contractile unit of a muscle fiber
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Striations:
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alternating light and dark transverse bands across a myofibril
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Different Striations (5)
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a) A band: dark band formed by a parallel thick filaments that partly overlap the thin filaments
b) H band: a lighter region in the middle of an A band that contains thick filaments only; thin filaments don't reach this far into the A band in relaxed muscle c) M line: a dark line in the middle of an H band; origin of the thick filaments d) I band: a light band composed of thin filaments only e) Z disc: a protein disc to which thin filaments and elastic filaments are anchored at each end of a sarcomere; appears as a narrow dark line in the middle of the I band |
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Source of energy used in a muscle contraction?
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ATP
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Twitch:
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At threshold or higher, a stimulus thus causes a quick cycle of contraction and relaxation (a jerk)
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Treppe:
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The patter of increasing tension with repetitive stimulation
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Tetanus:
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A state of sustained muscle contraction produced by temporal summation as a normal part of contraction
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Incomplete Tetanus:
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The muscle relaxes only partially between stimuli, producing a state of fluttering contraction
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Complete Tetanus:
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The muscle has no time to relax at all between stimuli, and the twitches fuse into a smooth, prolonged contraction.
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Motor Unit
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One motor neuron and all the skeletal muscle fibers innervated by it.
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Slow Oxidative, Slow Twitch, Red, or Type I Fibers:
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They don't fatigue very easy, but exhibit a relatively long twitch when responding to a single stimulus.
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Fast Glycolytic, Fast-Twitch, White, or Type II Fibers:
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well adapted for quick responses, but not for fatigue resistance. They fatigue quickly.
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Intermediate Fibers:
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combine fast twitch responses with aerobic fatigue resistant metabolism. But are very rare - found mostly in athletes.
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3 Parts of a Neuron
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1) Soma- the control center. Also called neurosoma, cell body, or perikaryon
- contains organelles, no centrioles, resulting in no further cell division b) Dendrites: branches coming from the soma - they recieve signals from other neurons c) Axon (nerve fiber) originates from the axon hillock - the distal end, has terminal aborization - synaptic knob - little swelling that forms a junction (synapse with the next cell) - contains synaptic vesicles full of neurotransmitters |
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Two main divisions of the Nervous System:
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1) Central Nervous System (CNS)
- brain and spinal cord 2) Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) - composed of nerves and ganglia a) nerve - a bundle of nerve fibers (axons wrapped in fibrous connective tissue b) Ganglion - a knot like swelling in a nerve where neuron cell bodies are concentrated. |
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*Functional Types of Neurons
- Sensory (Afferent) Neurons |
- specialized to detect stimuli
- transmit information from receptors to the CNS |
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*Functional Types of Neurons
- Interneurons (association) neurons |
- interconnect sensory pathways an motor pathways in CNS
- process and store information and "make decisions" - 90% of all neurons are interneurons |
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*Function Types of Neurons
- Motor (efferent) Neurons |
- Sends signals out to muscles and gland cells (the effectors)
a) motor: because most of them lead to muscles b) Efferent: neurons conduct signals away from the CNS |
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6 Glial Cells
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1) Oligodendrocytes: myelinate CNS neurons
2) Ependymal Cells: secretes cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) 3)Microglia: small wandering macrophages 4) Astrocytes: (most abundant glial cell in the CNS) blood-brain barrier, metabolic support of neurons, secretion of nerve growth factors, buffer environment around neurons. 5) Schwann Cells: Myelinate axons (PNS) 6) Satellite cells: electrical insulation around the soma/regulate the chemical environment of the neurons (PNS) |
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Resting Membrane Potential:
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Charge difference across the plasma membrane
- RMP is restin, unstimulated neuron is around -70mV - Negative value means inside more negative then ousides (less K+ inside then Na+ outside) |
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Post Synaptic Potentials
EPSP/IPSP |
EPSP: result form Na+ flowing into the cell (glutamate and aspartate are excitatory in the brain)
IPSP: are produced by neurotransmitters that open ligand-regulated chloride gates causing inflow of Cl- making the cytosol more negative (glycine and GABA produce IPSPs and are inhibitory) |
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Temporal Summation vs Spatial Summation:
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Temporal: single synapse generates EPSPs which add up over time to a threshold voltage that triggers an action potential.
Spatial: EPSPs from several different synapses add up to a threshold at an axon hillock |
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VERTEBRAE!!!
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-Cervical (neck) 7 - C1-C7
-Thoracic (upper back) 12 - T1-T12 -Lumbar(lower back) 5 - L1-L5 Sacral - 5 Coccygeal - 4 |
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Where does the spinal/vertebral canal end?
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around L1/L2
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Meninges (3): (superficial to deep)
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1) Dura Mater: forms a loose fitting sleeve called the Dural Sheath around the spinal cord. The space between the sheath and vertebral bones (epidural space) is occupied by blood vessels, adipose tissue, and loose connective tissue.
2) Arachnoid Mater: consists of a simple squamous epithelium, adhering to the inside of the dura, and a loose mesh of collagenous and elastic fibers spanning the gap between the arachnoid membrane and the pia mater. IT is filled with CSF 3) Pia Mater: is a delicate, translucent membrane that closely follows the contours of the spinal cord |
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White Matter
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myelinated axon fibers (they carry signals from one part of the CNS to another)
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Gray Matter
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butterfly-shaped (cell bodies of spinal neurons/ processing and integrating information)
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Spinal Tracts
- Ascending Tracts |
Carry signals UP the spinal cord
- first order neurons: detect stimulus and transmit signal to spinal cord or brain stem - second order neurons:continues to the thalamus at the upper end of the brain stem - third order neurons: carries the signal the rest of the way to the sensory region of the cerebral cortex |
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Spinal Tracts
- Descending Tracts |
carry motor signals DOWN the brainstem and spinal cord
- upper motor neuron: originate in cerebral cortex or brain stem and terminates on a lower motor neuron - lower motor neuron: in brain stem or spinal cord a) axon of lower motor neuron leads the rest of the way to the muscle or other target organ. |
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*Spinal Injuries/Disease
- Paraplegia |
paralysis of lower limbs
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*Spinal Injuries/Disease
- Quadriplegia |
paralysis of all four limbs
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*Spinal Injuries/Disease
- Hemiplegia |
paralysis of one side of the body only
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*Spinal Injuries/ Disease
- Chickenpox |
caused by varicella-zoster virus remains for life in the posterior root ganglia
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*Spinal Injuries/Disease
- Shingles: |
localized disease caused by the virus traveling down the sensory nerves by fast axonal transport usually ends in a painful trail of skin discoloration and fluid-filled vesicles along path of nerve
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*Spinal Injuries/Disease
- Spina Bifida |
congenital defect in which one or more vertebrae fail to form a complete vertebral arch for enclosure of the spinal cord (common in lumbosacral region)
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*Spinal Injuries/Disease
- Folic Acid (a B Vitamin) |
defects occur during the first four weeks of development, so folic acid supplementation must begin 3 months before conception.
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*Spinal Injuries/Disease
- Poliomyelitis: |
destroys motor neurons in brain stem and anterior horn of spinal cord
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*Spinal Injuries/Disease
- Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) |
destruction of motor neurons, and muscular atrophy, and scarring of lateral regions of the spinal cord.
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NERVE I
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Olfactory Nerve - found in the olfactory mucosa in nasal cavity
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NERVE II
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Optic Nerve: found in the retina
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NERVE VIII
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Vestibulocochlear Nerve : cochlea, vestibule, and semicircular ducts of the inner ear
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NERVE X
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Vagus Nerve: Thoracic and abdominopelvic viscera, root of tongue, pharynx, larynx, epiglottis, outer ear, dura mater
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Frontal Lobe
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Involved in planning, organizing, problem solving, personality, behavior, and emotions. Nerve cells that produce movement are located in the motor areas
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Parietal Lobe
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sensations - touch, pressure, etc. judgment of texture, weight size, shape, etc
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Occipital Lobe
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processes visual information, visual reception, and helps in visual recognition of shapes and colors
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Temporal Lobe
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visual memory ( pictures and faces) verbal memory also
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Longitudinal Fissure
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separates the right and left hemispheres from each other
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Corpus Callosum
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connects the hemispheres by a thick bundle of nerve fibers
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Central Sulcus:
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separates the parietal lobe from the temporal lobe
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Lateral Fissure
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Separates the parietal lobe from the frontal lobe
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Brainstem
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responsible for functions such as: breathing, heartbeat, blood pressure, initiating a set of reflexes, focusing of attention, patterns of arousal (sleeping versus waking)
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Thalamus
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relay and processing of sensory information
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Hypothalamus
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control of emotions, autonomic functions, and hormone production
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Limbic System:
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emotion and learning
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Sympathetic (thoracolumbar division:
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adapts body for physical activity: increases alertness, heart rate, blood pressure, etc. "fight or flight" increases blood flow to cardiac and skeletal muscle, but not to the skin and digestive tract
- Short pregnanglionic and long postganglionic fibers/ preganglionic neurosomas in spinal cord (gray matter)/ terminal ganglia near spinal cord |
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Parasympathetic (craniosacral division)
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calming effect on body functions = reduced energy, normal bodily maintenance, functions like digestion and waste elimination
- long preganglionic and short postganlgionic fibers/ terminal ganglia near target organ. comes from the brainstem and the sacral region of the cord |
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Enteric System
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regulates motility of esophagus, stomach, and intestines, and secretion of digestive enzymes and acid (its the nervous system of the digestive tract)
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Transducers
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converts energy from one form to another
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Sensory Modalities
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1) Touch (general sense: by sensory receptors in skin, muscles or joints)
2) Vision (special sense: specialized receptors in head) 3) Hearing (special senses: specialized receptors in head) 4) Smell (Special senses: specialized receptors in head) 5) Taste (Special senses: specialized receptors in head) |
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Nociceptor:
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are pain receptors; they respond to tissue injury or situations that threaten to damage a tissue
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Ascending Tract
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convey pain sensation to the brain
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Descending Tract
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travel down the spinal cord and block pain signals
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Sound intensity
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measure in decibels (dB)
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Sound Frequency
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measured in Hertz (Hz)
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Cones
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(color, photopic, or day vision)
- similar to rods except outer segment tapers to a point - plasma membrane infoldings form discs |
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Rods
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(night-scotopic vision) the outer segment is specialized to absorb light. It is rich in rhodopsin, a visual pigment. Inner segment contains organelles sitting atop cell body with nucleus.
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Ganglion Cells
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largest neurons in the retina; the only cells that send action potentials to the brain
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Know that both the CNS and Endocrine systems are.....
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intimately involved in maintaining homeostasis
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