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160 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
What do Lymphatic and Immune systems do
|
-Maintain fluid balance
-protect body from infection and diesase |
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Functions of Lymphatic system
|
-immunity
-lipid absorption -fluid recovery |
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What is a lymph
|
-clear colorless fluid, similar to plasma but much less protein
|
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What do lymphatic capillaries do?
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-allow bacteria and cells entrance to lymphatic capillary
-creats valve-like flaps that open when interstitial fluid pressure is high, close when its low. |
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The three layers of the larger lymphatic vessel
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-tunica interna(endothelium and valves)
-tunica media(Elastic fibers, smooth muscle) -tunica externa(thin outer layer) |
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Route of lymph flow
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-lymphatic capillaries
-collecting vessels -lymphatic trunks -collecting ducts |
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Function of Lymphatic trunks
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-drain major portions of body
|
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Two parts of the collecting ducts
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-right lymphatic duct
-thoracic duct |
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Function of right lymphatic duct
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-recieves lymph from R ar, R side of head and thorax,
-empties into R subclavian vein. |
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Function of thoracic duct
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-larger/longer
-begins as prominent sac in abdomen (cisterna chyli) -recieves lymph from below diaphram, L arm, L side of head, neck and thorax, -empties into L subclavian vein. |
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Mechanisms of Lymph Flow
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-lymph flows at low pressure and speed.
-moved along by rhythmic contractions of lymphatic vessels-flow aided by skeletal muscle pump -Thoracic pump aides flow form abdominal to thoracic cavity. -valves prevent backward flow -rapidly flowing blood in subclavian veins, draws lymph into it -exercise significantly increases lymphatic return. |
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Lymphatic Cells
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-Natural Killer (NK) cells
-T lymphocytes -B lymphocytes -Antigen Presenting Cells |
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Natural Killer (NK) cells are responsible for
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-immune surveillance
|
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T lymphocytes mature in the...
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Thymus
|
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B Lymphocytes activation causes
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-proliferation and differentiation into plasma cells that produce antibodies
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Antigen Presenting Cells include
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-macrophages (from monocytes)
-dendritic cells (in epidermis, mucous membranes and lymphatic organs) -reticular cells (contribute to stroma of lymph organs) |
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Lymphatic Nodules
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-dense oval masses of lymphocytes, congregate in response to pathogens.
|
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Peyer Patches
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more permanent congregation, clusters found at junction of small to large intestines
|
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Two types of lymphatic organs
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-primary lymphatic organs
-secondary lymphatic organs |
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Lymphatic Organs are found at
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Well defined sites; have CT capsules
|
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Antigen Presenting Cells include
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-macrophages (from monocytes)
-dendritic cells (in epidermis, mucous membranes and lymphatic organs) -reticular cells (contribute to stroma of lymph organs) |
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Lymphatic Nodules
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-dense oval masses of lymphocytes, congregate in response to pathogens.
|
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Peyer Patches
|
more permanent congregation, clusters found at junction of small to large intestines
|
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Two types of lymphatic organs
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-primary lymphatic organs
-secondary lymphatic organs |
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Lymphatic Organs are found at
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Well defined sites; have CT capsules
|
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Primary lymphatic organs include
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-red bone marrow
-thymus |
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Secondary Lymphatic organs include
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-lymph nodes
-tonsiles -spleen |
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Lymph nodes
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-only organs that filter lymph
-fewer efferent vessels, slows flow through node. -Capsule gives off trabeculae, divides into compartments containing stroma parenchyma / subdivided into cortex & medulla |
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Stroma include
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reticular CT
|
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Parenchyma include
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lymphatic nodules
|
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Lymphadenopathy
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-colective term for all lymph node diseases
|
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Lymphadenitis
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-swollen, painful node responding to foreign antigen
|
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Lymph nodes are common site for
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-metastatic cancer
(swollen, firm and usually painless) |
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The tonsil is covered by
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epithelium
|
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Three types of tonsils
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-palatine tonsile
-lingual tonsils -pharyngeal tonsil (adenoid) |
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Location of Palatine tonsile
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-pari at posterior margin of oral cavity
|
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Location of Lingual tonsil
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-pair at root of tongue
|
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Location of Pharyngeal tonsil (Adenoid)
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- single tonsil on wall of pharynx
|
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Thymus Capsule gives off
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-trabeculae
-divides parenchyma into lobules of cortex and medulla. |
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The reticular epithelial cells of the thymus do what two things ?
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-form blood thymus barrier in cortex
-secretes Hormones |
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The thymus secrets what three hormones?
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-thymopoietin
-thymulin -thymosins |
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Why does the thymus secrete hormones ?
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-to promote development and action of T lymphocytes
|
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The reticular epithelial cells form blood thymus barrier in the cortex which
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-isolates developing T lymphocytes from foreign antigens
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The parenchyma of the spleen appears in fresh speciments as
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-red pulp
-white pulp |
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The red pulp of the spleen are :
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-sinuses filled with erothrocytes
|
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The white pulp of the speel are:
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-lymphocytes, macrophages;
-surrounds small branches of splenic artery |
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What are the functions of the Spleen ?
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-blood production in fetus
-blood reservoir -RBC disposal -immune reactions: filters blood, quick to detect antigens |
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What are the two types of defenses against pathogens ?
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-non specific defenses (broadly effective, no prior exposure)
-specific defenses (results from prior exposure, protects against only a particular pathogen) |
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The non specific defenses include:
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-FIRST LINE OF DEFENSE (external barriers)
-SECOND LINE OF DEFENSE (phagocytic cells, antimicrobial proteins, inflammation and fever) |
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Specific Defenses include:
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-THIRD LINE OF DEFENSE
(immune system) |
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What are the three main external barriers:
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-skin
-mucous membranes -subepithelial areolar tissue |
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What makes skin an external barrier:
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-toughness of keratin
-dry and nurtient-poor -defensins: peptides, from neurrophils attack microbes -lactic acid (acid mantle) is a component of perspiration |
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What makes the Mucous Membrane an external barrier:
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-stickiness of mucous
-lysozyme: enzyme destroys bacterial cell walls. |
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What makes the subepithelial areolar tissue an external barrier ?
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-tissue gel: viscous barrier of hyluronic acid
|
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What is Hyaluronidase:
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-enzyme used by pathogens to spread
|
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What are leukocytes and cutaneos defenses:
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-neutrophils
-eosinophils -basophils -monocytes -lymphocytes |
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What are the functions of the neutrophils :
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-phagocytize bacteria
-create a killing zone |
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What are the two steps of the neutrophils creating a killing zone:
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-degranulation (lysosomes discharge into tissue fluid)
-respiratory burst (toxic chemicals are created (O2, H2O2, HCIO) |
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What are the functions of the eosinophils:
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-phagocytize antigen-antibody complexes
-antiparasitic effects -promote action of basophils, mast cells -Enzymes block excess inflammation, limit action of histimine. |
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What are the functions of basophils:
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Aid mobility and action of WBC's by release of
-histimine (vasodilator) -heparin (anticoagulant) |
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What does the histamine from the basophils do:
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-blood flow to infected tissue
|
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What does the heparin from the basophils do:
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-prevents immobilization of phagocytes
|
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What are the functions of the monocytes:
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-circulating precursors to macrophages
-specialized macrophages found in specific localities |
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Specific macrophages are found in which specific localities:
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-dendritic cells
-microglia, astrocyres (CNS) -alveolar macrophages (lungs) -hepatic macrophages (liver) |
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Function of the lymphocytes:
|
CIRCULATING BLOOD CONTAINS:
-80% T cells -15% B cells -5% NK (Natural Killer) cells |
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What are the two Antimicrobial Proteins
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-interferons
-complement system |
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What is the function of the interferons
|
secreted by certain cells invaded by visuses
-generalized protection -diffusse to enighboring cells/stimulate them to produce antiviral proteins -activate natural killer cells and macrophages |
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What do activated NK cells and macrophages do
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-destroy infected host cells
-stimulate destruction of cancer cells |
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The compliment system includes:
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-Compliment (C) proteins in blood that must be activated by pathogens
-pathways of compliment activation: C3 split into C3a and C3b. |
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What areh thee 3 Pathways used in the compliment system:
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-Classical pathway (requires antibody:specific immunity)
-Alternate Pathway (nonspecific immunity) -Lectin Pathway (Nonspecific immunity) |
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What are the mechanisms of action used in the Compliment system:
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-enhanced inflammation
-phagocytosis -cytolysis -immune clearance |
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What happens in the Membrane Attack Complex:
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-compliment proteins form ring in plasma membrane of target cell causing cytolysis
|
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In the Immune Surveillance, the NK (natural killer cells) do what:
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-destroy bacteria, transplanted cells, cells infected by viruses and cancer cells
(release perforins and granzymes) |
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What is Inflammation:
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A defensive response to tissue injury which:
-limits spread of pathogens, then destroys them, -removes debris -initiates tissue repair |
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What do cytokines have to do with inflammation:
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They are small proteins that regulate inflammation and immunity; includes
-interferons -interleukins -tumor necrosis factor -chemotactic factors |
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The suffix -itis denotes what:
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-inflammation of specific organs
|
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What are the cardinal signs of inflammation:
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-REDNESS(caused by hyperemia)
-SWELLING(caused by capillary permeabilit and filtration -HEAT(caused by hyperemia) -PAIN(caused by inflammatory chemicals secreted by damaged cells, pressure on nerves) |
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What are the inflammatory chemicals that cause pain:
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-bradykinin
-prostaglandins |
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What are the three major processes of inflammation:
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-mobilization of body deffenses
-containment and destruction of pathogens -tissue clean-up and repair |
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What happens in the mobilization of defenses:
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-kinins, histamine and leukotrienes are secreted by damaged cells, basophils and mast cells
|
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Kinins, histamine and leukotrienes are secreted by:
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-damaged cells
-basophils -mast cells |
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Leukocyte Deployment
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-margination
(selectins cause leukocytes to adhere to blood vessel walls) -diapedesis(EMIGRATION) (leukocytes squeeze between endothelial cells into tissue space) |
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Containment and Destruction of Pathogens include:
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-Fribrinogen (now in tissue clots, trapping pathogens)
-Heparin (preents clotting at site of injury; pathogens in fluid pocket surrounded by clot |
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Containment and Destruction of Pathogens cont. :
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-Chemotaxis (leukocytes are attracted to chemotactic chemicals)
-Neutrophils (are quickest to respond) -phagocytosis -respiratory burst -secrete cytokines for recruitment of macrophages & neutrophils -macrophages and T cells secrete colony-stimulating factor to stimulate leukopoiesis. |
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Monocytes become what during tissue cleanup?
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macrophages
|
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What are the primary agents for tissue cleanup and when do they arrive?
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-monocytes
-8-12 hrs |
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What does edema venous flow do for tissue cleanup?
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- increases lymphatic flow that favors removal of bacteria and debris
|
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During Tissue cleanup there is a formation of pus, which is:
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-mixture of tissue fluid
-cellular debris -dying neutrophils -microbes |
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What is the first step of Tissue repair:
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(1)blood platelets and endothelial cells in injured area secrete a cytokine (PDGF), that stimulates fibroblasts to multiply and synthesize collagen.
|
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What are the last three steps of tissue repair:
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(2)facilitated by hyperemia that provides materials needed and heat that increasees metabolism
(3) fibrin clot may provide a scaffold for repair (4) pain limits use of body part allowing for repair. |
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What does a fever do:
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-promotes interferon activity
-accelerating metabolic rate and tissue repair -inhibiting pathogen reproduction |
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A fever is a :
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defense mechanism that does more good then harm
|
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Three stages of fever:
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-onset
-stadium -defervescence |
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A fever of 105 will cause:
A fever of 111-115 will cause: |
-dilerium
-coma,death |
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What does Natural active immunity do:
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(produces memory cells)
-production of one's own antibodies or T cells as a result of iinfection or natural exposure to antigen |
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What does Artificial active Immunity do:
|
(produces memory cells)
-production of one's own antibodies or T cells as a result of vaccination |
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What is Natural Passive Immunity:
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(through placenta, milk)
-temporary, fetus acquires antibodies from mother |
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What is Artificial passive Immunity:
|
(snakebite, reabies, tetanus)
-temporary, injection of immune serum (antibodies) |
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Cellular immunity deals with:
Humoral immunity deals with: |
cell-mediated (T cells)
antibody mediated (B cells) |
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What doe antigens do:
|
Trigger an immune response
|
|
What are Epitopes and what do they do:
|
(antigenic determinants)
-stimulate immune responses |
|
Specific Immunity depends on:
|
-lymphocytes
|
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The 3 steps to the life cycle of a T cell:
|
-stem cells in red bone marrow
-mature in thymus -deployment |
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Negative Selection Immunocompetent T cells must be able to:
|
-bind to RE cells
-not reacy to self antigens |
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Positive Selection Immunocompetent T cells that are able to:
|
-bind to MHC on RE cell
-not react to self antigens |
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Site of Development for B Lymphocytes (B Cells)
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-other fetal stem cells remain in bone marrow
|
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Self-tolerant B cells form B cell clones which:
|
-synthesize antigen receptors
-divide rapidely -produce immunocompetent clones |
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(APC) stands for:
and the function depends on what type of proteins: |
-Antigen-Presenting Cells
-MHC proteins (Major histocompatability complex) |
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What displays antigens to T cells:
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-B cells
-macrophages |
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What are interleukins:
|
-chemical messengers between leukocytes
|
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Interleukins are used by ____________ and ______ to communicate:
|
(1) lymphocytes
(2) APC's |
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What happens during Cellular Immunity:
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-T cells attack foreign cells and diseased host cells;memory of Ag
|
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What are the three classes of T cells:
|
-Cytotoxic T cells (T-c)
-Helper T cells -Memory T cells |
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What do Cytotoxic T cells do:
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carry out attack
|
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What do Helper T cells do:
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help promote (T-c cell) and B cell action and nonspecific defense mechanisms
|
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What doe Memory T cells do:
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-provide immunity from future exposure to antigen
|
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What happens during (Tc) cell activation:
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-binding of cytotoxic T cells (CD8)
-costimulation via a cytokine -triggers clonal selection (Clone of identical T cells against cells with same epitope) |
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What are the two main points of (Tc) Cell Recognition:
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-Antigen Presentation
-(Tc) cell activation |
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Where are MHC-I proteins found and what do they do:
|
-on nearly all nucleated body cells
-display peptides produced by host hells |
|
What are the two main things that occur during the
(Attach Phase: Role of Helper T Cells) |
-Secrets interleukins
-coordinate humoral and cellular immunity |
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What happens when the Helper T Cells secrete interleukins:
|
-attract neutrophils, NK cells, macrophages
-stimulate phagocytosis -stimulate T and B cell mitosis and maturation |
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What are the two main points to the Attack Phase: Cytotoxic T Cells:
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-Only T cells directly attack enemy cells
-Letal hit mechanism |
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What are the steps to the lethal hit mechanism:
|
-docks on cell with antigen MHC-I protein complex
-releases perforin, granzymes-kill target cell -interferons-decrease viral replication and activates macrophages -tumor necrosis factor:kills cancer cells |
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What are two points about Memory T Cells:
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-following clonal selection some T cells become memory cells
-long lived; in higher #'s then Naive cells |
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What is one point about T cell recall response:
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-upon reexposure to same pathogen, memory cells launch a quick attack
|
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What are the three steps to Humoral Immunity:
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(1) recognition
(2) Attack (3) Memory |
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What are the two parts to Recognition of Humoral Immunity
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-B cell receptors bind antigen, take in and digest antigen then display epitopes on its MHC-II protein
-After costimulation by (T-H) cell, divide repeatedly, differentiate into plasma cells, priduce antibodies specific to that antigen |
|
What happens during the attack of Humoral immunity:
|
-antibodies bind to antigen, render it harmless, "tag it" for destruction.
|
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What happens during the Memory phase of Humoral Immunity:
|
-some B cells differentiate into memory cells
|
|
Antibody classes are made by:
|
-amino acid sequence of C region of antibody
|
|
What are included in the Antibody classes:
|
-IgA
-IgD -IgE -IgG -IgM |
|
What is the IgA:
|
monomer in plasma; dimer in mucus, saliva, tears, milk, intestinal secretions, prevents adherence to epithelia
|
|
What is the IgD:
|
Monomer; B cell membrane antigen receptor
|
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What is the IgE:
|
monomer; on mast cells; stimulates release of histamines, attracts eosinophils; immediate hypersensitivity reactions
|
|
What is the IgG:
|
monomer; 80% circulating, crosses placenta to fetus, 2 immune response, complement fixation
|
|
What is the IgM:
|
-pentamer, 10% in plasma, 1 immune response, agglutination, complement fixation
|
|
What makes up Antibody Diversity:
|
-immune system capable of as many as 1 trillion different antibodies
-Somatic recombination -Somatic hypermutation |
|
What occurs during somatic recombination
|
-DNA segments shuffled and form new combinations of base sequences to produce antibody genes
|
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What occurs during somatic hypermutation
|
-B cells in lymph nodules rapidly mutate creating new sequences
|
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What are the 4 main parts to Humoral Immunity Attack:
|
(1) Neutralization
(2) Complement Fixation (3) Agglutination (4) Precipatation |
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What happens during the neutrilization of Humoral Immunity-Attack:
|
-antibodies mask pathogenic region of antigen
|
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What happens during COMPLEMENT FIXATION of Humoral Immunity-Attack:
|
- antigen binds to IgM or IgG, antibody changes shape, initiates complelemt binding: primary defense against foreign cells, bacteria
|
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What happens during AGGLUTINATION of Humoral Immunity-Attack:
|
-antibody has 2-10 binding sites; binds to multiple enemy cells immobilizing them
|
|
What happens during PRECIPITATION of Humoral Immunity -Attack:
|
-antibody binds to antigen molecules (not cells) creates antigen-antibody complex that precipitates phagocytized by eosinophil
|
|
What is Hypersensitivity
|
An Allergy
-excessive immune reaction against antigens that most people tolerate- allergens |
|
How many types are there for Hypersensitivity:
|
4
|
|
What is Type I of Hypersensitivity:
EXAMPLES: |
Type I: Antibody mediated (IgE), acute reaction
-Anaphylaxis -Asthma -Anaphylactic Shock |
|
What is Type II of Hypersensitivity:
|
Type II: Antibody mediated (IgG, IgM) subacute
- |
|
What is Type III of Hypersensitivity:
|
Type III: Antibody mediated (IgG, IgM) subacute
|
|
What is Type IV of Hypersensitivity:
|
Type IV: cell mediated, delayed (12-72 Hrs)
|
|
What are the qualifications of an Autoimmune Disease:
|
-Failure to self tolerance
-Production of autoantibodies |
|
Severe Combined Immunodeficiency Diseases are caused by:
|
-heredity lack of T and B cells
-vulnerability to opportunistic infection |
|
What is an example of an Immunodeficiency Disease
|
-AIDS
|
|
What is AIDS and what happens:
|
-HIV structure
-invades Helper T cells, macrophages and dendritic cells by "tricking" them to internalize viruses by receptor mediated endocytosis -reverse transcriptase (retrovirus), uses viral RNA as tempalte to synthesize DNA, new DNA inserted into host cell DNA, may be dormant for months to years. |
|
What are signs/symptoms of AIDS:
|
-(EARLY) flulike chills and fever
-progresses to night sweats, fatigue, headache, extreme weight loss, lymphadenitis -Normal (T-H) cell count=600-1200 in Aids it is <200 cells. -thrush -Kaposi sarcoma |
|
What is thrush (the symptom of Aids)
|
-white patches on mucous membranes
|
|
What is Kaposi sarcoma:
|
when cancer originates in endothelial cells of blood vessels, causes purple lesions in skin.
|
|
HIV is transmitted through:
|
-blood
-semen -vaginal secretions -breast milk -across the placenta |
|
What are the most common means of HIV transmission:
|
-sexual intercourse (Vaginal, anal, oral)
-contaminated blood products -contaminated neddles |
|
What are some treatment strategies for HIV
|
-prevent binding of CD4 proteins of (T-H) cells
-disrupt reverse transcriptase, inhibit assembly of new viruses of their release from host cells -Medications |