Anatomy And Physiology

Front 1

In humans what is the DIPLOID number of chromosomes

Back 1

46

Front 2

In humans what is the HAPLOID number of chromosomes

Back 2

23

Front 3

What is the process of cell division that reduces the diploid number of chromsomes to the haploid number

Back 3

MEIOSIS

Front 4

What is a homlogous pair of chromosomes

Back 4

1 set of chromosomes from the mother+ 1 set of chromosmes from the father = 46 chromosomes

Front 5

What is the end result of male meiosis ?
What is the end result of female meiosis ?

Back 5

Male= 4 functional spermatids from 1 primary spermaceti
Female= 1 ovum + 2/3 polar bodies from primary oocyte

Front 6

What is the process of cell division resulting in the formation of 2 genetically identical cells to the parent cell ?

Back 6

MITOSIS

Front 7

What is a gamete ?

Back 7

Oocyte or spematoza

Front 8

When gametes "combine" at fertilisation what is the result

Back 8

Zygote

Front 9

What are the seminiferous tubules

Back 9

Where meiosis occurs in the male and sperm is produced

Front 10

Where is testosterone produced in the testes in response to Luteinising Hormone (LH) ?

Back 10

Leydig cells

Front 11

What is the process known by which male gametes are produced ?

Back 11

Spermatogenisis

Front 12

What hormone acts on the seminiferous tubules to enhance germ cell maturation ?

Back 12

Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)

Front 13

What is a glycoprotein, secreted by the anterior pituitary and the primary hormone involved in ovulation ?

Back 13

Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

Front 14

The onset of mensturation is refered to as ?

Back 14

Menarche, average age 12 years

Front 15

The cessation of menses is called ?

Back 15

The menopause

Front 16

The ruptured follicle or yellow body , which degenerates if fertilisation doesnt occur is called?

Back 16

Corpus luteum.
(If it degenerates it is reffered to as the corpus albicans, meaning white body)

Front 17

What innervates the clitoris, the vestibule, most of the labia and the perineum ?

Back 17

The Pudendal nerve

Front 18

What are the phases of the menstrual cycle ?

Back 18

The menstrual phase, proliferative phase and the secretory phase

Front 19

What hormones are secreted y the copus luteum ?

Back 19

Progesterone and some oestrogen

Front 20

What are the phases in the ovarian cycle ?

Back 20

The follicular phase
Ovulation
The luteal phase

Front 21

What hormone does the Graafian follicle secrete which causes a surge in LH ?

Back 21

Oestrogen

Front 22

The ______________________________ releases FSH and LH in males and females in response to ______________- releasing hormone

Back 22

The anterior pituitary gland releases FSH and LH in males and females in response to Gondotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

Front 23

Ovum are moved along the uterine tubes via ____________ movement and ___________________ contractions in the uterine tube walls

Back 23

Ovum are moved along the uterine tubes by cilary movement and muscle contractions of the uterine tube walls

Front 24

What is the area containing the female genitalia ?
What is it bordered by ?
What structures does it contain ?

Back 24

The vulva
It is bordered by the perineum and the labia major
The vaginal entrance, the mons pubis, the clitoris, the labia minora and the Bartholins glands

Front 25

The main hormone secreted in the follicular phase ?

Back 25

Oestrogens

Front 26

The main hormones secreted in the luteal phase ?

Back 26

Progesterones

Front 27

Follicles contained in the cortex of the ovary are in what stages of development ?

Back 27

From primordial to mature

Front 28

Ovulation is a result of interaction between ?

Back 28

The hypothalamus, anterior pituitary and ovaries

Front 29

The uterus is located behind what organ ? \
What is the shape of the uterus ?

Back 29

The uterus is located behind the bladder and is the shape of a pear

Front 30

What position is the uterus of an average women likely to be in ?

Back 30

Anteverted ( uterus leans forward) and anteflexed ( bends forward upon itself)
When a women is standing the uterus is in an almost horizontal position with the funds resting on the bladder

Front 31

Male and female reproductive systems are under the hormonal control of ?

Back 31

GnRH
LH
FSH

Front 32

What are the 3 layers of muscle of the myometrium called ?

Back 32

Inner circular
Middle oblique
Outer longitudinal

Front 33

The blood supply to the uterus is by the uterine artery which is a branch of the ?

Back 33

Internal iliac and the ovarian artery

Front 34

The uterosacral, pubocervical, round, broad and transverse are all what ?

Back 34

Major supporting ligaments of the uterus

Front 35

Increase in uterine size is due to ? of the muscle cells ?

Back 35

Hyperplasia ( development of new fibres) and Hypertrophy ( increase in length and thickness of existing muscle fibres

Front 36

What is the chief cause of trisomies and monosomies ?

Back 36

A distruption in the process of meiosis

Front 37

The incidence of father to son transmission of X linked recessive traits is ? %

Back 37

0%

Front 38

The incidence of father to daughter transmission of a dominant trait is ?%

Back 38

100%

Front 39

All cells in the human body contain how many autosomes and how many sex chromosomes ?

Back 39

22 pairs of autosomes
1 pair of sex chromosomes

Front 40

In the blastocyst there are 4 parts
1- There is a fluid filled cavity
2-In a blastocyst what part prevents adhesion to the fallopian tube ?

Back 40

The zona pellucida

Front 41

In the blastocyst what does
3-the trophoblast
4-the embryoblast
develop into ?

Back 41

The trophoblast- placenta
The embryoblast- embryo

Front 42

Cystic fibrosis is an autosomal recessive disorder. When both parents are cystic fibrosis carriers, what is their chance of having an affected child ?

Back 42

25%

Front 43

What process creates a haploid number of chromosomes in gametes from diploid cells ?

Back 43

Meiosis

Front 44

What consists of an internal os, an external os and a cervical canal ?

Back 44

The cervix

Front 45

What facilitates the transmission of chemical signals and electrical impulses between myometrial cells ?

Back 45

Gap junctions

Front 46

True or false
Do Braxton Hicks contractions become more frequent and noticeable as the pregnancy nears term ?

Back 46

TRUE

Front 47

True or false
The increase in the size of the uterus is due to hypoplasia and hypertrophy of the myometrial cells ?

Back 47

FALSE
Correct answer-Due to HYPERPLASIA and hypertrophy

Front 48

The true pelvis is a straight or curved canal through which the foetus passes

Back 48

Curved

Front 49

What reaction occurs to prevent other sperm penetrating the zone pellucida ?

Back 49

The acrosome reaction

Front 50

What meiosis does the ovum complete before fertilisation can occur ?

Back 50

Meiosis II

Front 51

Influenced by secretions in the uterine tube, the sperm undergos what which results in changes in the removal of the glycoprotein coat ?

Back 51

Capacitation

Front 52

By day 8 what hormone does the trophoblast produce which ensures the endometrium will be receptive to implantation of the blastocyst ?

Back 52

Human chorionic gonadotrophin ( hCG)

Front 53

By day 10 the blastocyst is completely buried in the endometrium which is now called the ?

Back 53

Decidua

Front 54

Why does the decidua secret cytokines and protease
inhibitors

Back 54

To moderate trophoblast invasion

Front 55

What is the exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes called ?

Back 55

Crossing over event

Front 56

What is the process that results in changes to embryogenisis or fetal development during gestation ?

Back 56

Teratogenisis

Front 57

Put in order of development
blastomere, foetus
zygote, blastocyst
morula, embyro

Back 57

Zygote-Day 0
Blastomere- Day 1
Morula- Day 3
Blastocyst- Day 7
Embryo-Day 10
Foetus-week 8

Front 58

Inplantation stimulates differation of the trophoblasts to become ?

Back 58

Syncytiotrophoblast and cytotrophoblast

Front 59

The zona pellucida is digested by which stage

Back 59

morula

Front 60

True or falseThe morula is a group of cells which passes from the fallopian tube into the uterine cavity

Back 60

true

Front 61

True or false
The blastocyst is a ball of cells surrounding a fluid filled cavity

Back 61

True

Front 62

True or false
The placenta provides a way of mixing maternal blood and foetal blood and acts as a barrier to all agents ?

Back 62

False
Correct answer-The placenta allows the passage of select maternal antibodies to the foetus

Front 63

After implantation the endometrium is know as the ?

Back 63

Decidua

Front 64

What is the basalis decidua ?
What is the capsularis decidua ?
What is there remainder called ?

Back 64

Decidua immediately underneath the blastocyst is the basal is decidua
The decidua surrounding the blastocyst which projects into there uterine cavity is known as the decidua capsular is. the remainding decidua is called the decidua parietals

Front 65

The synctiotrophoblast cells produce hCG human chorionic gonadotrophin) hormone which maintains the corpus luteum
True or false ?

Back 65

True

Front 66

The corpus luteum produces progesterone and oestogen which inhibits menstration
True or false ?

Back 66

True

Front 67

The process by which oxygen, carbon dioxide, water and most electrolytes is transferred accross the placenta is called ?

Back 67

Diffusion

Front 68

The 2 membranes that form the amniotic sac are ?

Back 68

The amnion and the chorion

Front 69

What arises from the ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm germ layers ?

Back 69

Embryonic organ development

Front 70

Metabolic
endocrine
immunologic
transportation
Are all the main functions of what ?

Back 70

The Placenta

Front 71

Maternal blood enters into what ? before flowing slowly over fetal placental tissue and drains into endometrial veins

Back 71

Intervillious space

Front 72

Deoxygenated blood from the foetus is carried away in ?

Back 72

2 umbilical arteries

Front 73

The umbilical arteries divide on to what ? of the placenta ?

Back 73

The chorionic plate

Front 74

After the blood passes through the villious vessels it enters veins which converge back into what( ? )at the umbilical cord

Back 74

The umbilical vein

Front 75

The placenta synthesises numerous substances including hormones, pregnancy associated plasma proteins, cytokines and growth factors.
These substances regulate and maintain placental function and fetal growth
True or false?

Back 75

True

Front 76

By day 12 what is covered by endometrial epithelium ?

Back 76

The blastocyst

Front 77

Development of the placenta is dependant on a high or low oxygen environment at the implantation site ?

Back 77

Low oxygen

Front 78

By what week does the fetal period commence ?

Back 78

Week 8

Front 79

What is the period when the organ systems begin to develop ?

Back 79

Embryogenisis

Front 80

When can Teratogenisis occur ?

Back 80

Can occur at any time during gestation resulting in death or minor problems

Front 81

What is amniocentesis and chronic villus sampling ?

Back 81

Tests which allow sample of fetal cells to be examined for chromosomal abnormalities

Front 82

What layer of the decidua separates the placenta and the myometrium ?

Back 82

The basalis

Front 83

There are 2 veins that carry blood from the fetus and 1 artery which carries blood to the fetes
True of false ?

Back 83

False
Correct answer-There are 2 arteries that carry blood from the fetes and 1 vein that carries blood to the fetus

Front 84

At 40 weeks the amount of amniotic fluid woul;d be approx- 700-800mls
True of false ?

Back 84

True

Front 85

Placental structure is completed by the end of the third month, with no further development in the second and third trimester
True or false ?

Back 85

False
Correct answer-The placental structure changes throughout pregnancy undergoing various stages of development to meet the needs of the growing fetus

Front 86

What hormone does the synctiotrophoblast cells produce from week 2 onwards ?
They also produce enzymes, why ?

Back 86

Progesterone is produced by the syncytiotroblast cells from week 2 onwards
The production of enzymes aid in implantation

Front 87

What structure allows the fetus to develop and move and is bordered by the amnion with the chorion next to the amnion ?

Back 87

The amniotic sac

Front 88

What is the conceptual age ?

Back 88

It is the time since fertilisation

Front 89

On completion of embryogenisis no further organ development occurs only growth and maturation
True or false

Back 89

True
Embryogenisis is the time when all of the organs develop

Front 90

Stem villi continue to grow after the first 10-12 weeks
True or false ?

Back 90

False
Correct answer-The placenta doesnt grow any more stem villi after 10-12 weeks

Front 91

After implantation the endometrium is know as the amnion
True or false

Back 91

False
Correct answer-The endometrium is known as the decidua after implantation

Front 92

Phases of the menstural cycle result in endometrial proliferation in the ovarian luteal phase and development of the endometrial secretory phase in the ovarian follicular phase
True of false

Back 92

False
Correct answer-Endometrial proliferation in the ovarian follicular phase and development of the endometrial secretory phase in the ovarian luteal phase

Front 93

True or false
The cytrophoblast cells produce prostaglandins throughout pregnancy from week 2 onwards

Back 93

False

Front 94

What hormones does the corpus luteum produce ?

Back 94

Progesterone and oestrogen

Front 95

What effect does progesterone have on myometrial contractility ?

Back 95

Progesterone inhibits myometrial contractility

Front 96

Does progesterone increase or decrease before delivery ?
What effect does this have on the uterus ?

Back 96

Progesterone decreases, this allows the oestrogen- progesterone ratio to increase, the increased oestrogen helps to increase uterine contractions

Front 97

Which posterior pituitary hormone stimulus uterine contractions ?

Back 97

Oxytocin

Front 98

How does oestrogen increases the responsiveness of the myometrium to oxytocin ?

Back 98

Oestrogen increases the expression of oxytocin receptors in the myometrium

Front 99

How does progesterone prevent contractions ?

Back 99

Progesterone promotes smooth muscle relaxation

Front 100

What steroid hormone stimulates the secretion of prolactin from the anterior pituitary ?

Back 100

Oestrogen

Front 101

Oestrogen stimulates the synthesis of gap junctions
What do gap junction do ?

Back 101

Gap junctions occur between myometrial smooth muscle cells and allow electrical activity to travel between the cells so coordinated contractions can occur

Front 102

Which steroid hormone stimulates prolactin ?

Back 102

Oestrogen stimulates prolactin

Front 103

What action does prolactin have

Back 103

Prolactin promotes breast growth and milk synthesis

Front 104

Does Prolactin come from the anterior or posterior pituitary

Back 104

Anterior pituitary

Front 105

What hormone produced by the trophoblast enables the corpus luteum to remain active ?

Back 105

Human chorionic gonadotropin ( HCG)

Front 106

If fetililization does not occur what happens to the progesterone levels ?

Back 106

Rising progesterone levels inhibits the release of GnRH which then inhibits further production of progesterone.
The corpus luteum degenerates and the endometrium begins to break down, inhibition of uterine contraction is lifted and menstration occurs

Front 107

What is apoptosis

Back 107

Programmed cell death

Front 108

What positive effect does progesterone have on the sperm

Back 108

progesterone allows the flagellum (tail of the sperm) to beat more vigorously and rapidly by allowing influx of CA2+ ions into the plasma membrane
Progesterone is also secreted by cells around the oocyte and the sperm swim toward it

Front 109

Does progesterone increase or decrease sensitivity to oxytocin in the uterus

Back 109

Progesterone decreases sensitivity to oxytocin.
Once progesterone levels start to decrease near the end of pregnancy, the oestrogen levels increase, increasing oxytocin receptors and availability of oxytocin

Front 110

Rising LH levels cuses what to happen to the follicle ?

Back 110

Rising LH causes developing egg in follicle to complete meiosis I forming a secondary oocyte

Front 111

Hypothalamus-GnRH-Pituitary-FSH-Follicle- ?

Back 111

?=Oestrogen

Front 112

Hypothalamus-GnRH-Pituitary-LH-Corpus luteum-?

Back 112

?= Progesterone

Front 113

Uterine contractions result in contraction and ____________
of all myometrial cells thereby pushing the _________
downwards

Back 113

Uterine contractions result in contraction and retraction of all myometrial cells thereby pushing the foetus downwards

Front 114

Do the myometrial cells in the upper or lower uterine segment contract with greater force ?

Back 114

The myometrial cells in the UPPER segment contract with greater force

Front 115

What happens to the foetus position with each contraction?

Back 115

The foetus is progressively forced down with each contraction

Front 116

Uterine contractions are controlled by ?

Back 116

Oxytocin

Front 117

Uterine contractions are mediated via interaction of _____ and ________

Back 117

Actin and myosin

Front 118

Strong contractions with little time between contractions is a concern why ?

Back 118

The foetus will become distressed due to developing acidosis

Front 119

When does the women feel like the urge to push

Back 119

When the presenting part of the foetus nears the ischial spines

Front 120

When does fetal acidosis occur ?
What happens to the PH

Back 120

Occurs when the carbon dioxide levels in the fetes increase
The PH decreases

Front 121

Definition of intracellular

Back 121

Inside the cell

Front 122

Definition of intercellular

Back 122

Between the cells

Front 123

Do relaxin and progesterone inhibit or increase available calcium in the myometrial cells

Back 123

Relaxin and progesterone inhibit the available calcium

Front 124

Where is Relaxin produced ?

Back 124

Relaxin is initially produced in the corpus luteum and then by the myometrium and placenta

Front 125

Relaxin levels are highest during the third trimester
True or false

Back 125

False
Correct answer- relaxin levels are highest in the first trimester,falling rapidly after delivery

Front 126

Why does oxytocin used for the induction of labour, not work well for pre term births

Back 126

Due to lack of oxytocin receptors in the myometrium
These increase 200-300 fold by term under the influence of oestrogen

Front 127

Nitric oxide and progesterone work together to increase CAP formation
True or false

Back 127

False
Nitric acid and progesterone act together to down regulate the genes required for CAP ( contraction associated proteins)

Front 128

Myometrial contraction is caused by the interaction of myosin and actin
True or false

Back 128

True

Front 129

Contractions in smooth muscle is dependant on _______ across 5the cell membrane , ions such as sodium and potassium are also involved

Back 129

Calcium

Front 130

Myometrial contraction occurs when calcium is removed
True or false

Back 130

False
Correct answer- Myometrial relaxation occurs when calcium is removed

Front 131

Oxytocin and PGF2 ( a prostaglandin) increase contractions by increasing intracellular calcium levels
True or false

Back 131

True

Front 132

If Oxygen and glucose are required for ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
What can happen in prolonged labour

Back 132

If adequate oxygen and glucose not available for formation of ATP, the contractile process will be inhibited

Front 133

Before onset of labour the myometrium undergoes activation, what causes this ?

Back 133

Increase in contraction associated proteins (CAPS) and decrease in substances that promote uterine relaxation ( progesterone and relaxin)

Front 134

Oestogen ________ and _____________ decreases the potential for contraction

Back 134

Oestrogen increases and progesterone decreases the potential for contraction

Front 135

Myogenic control is dominated by mechanical stretching and hormonal influences
Name the 2 hormones which influence through their generally opposing actions

Back 135

Progesterone ans oestrogen

Front 136

Coordination of contractions occurs by coupling of myometrial cells via electrical ( e.g. gap junctions) and ______ ( eg PG's and oxytocin) mechanisms

Back 136

via electrical and chemical mechanisms

Front 137

Electrical signals are generated by the movement of __________ into the myometrial cells

Back 137

Calcium

Front 138

What is an action potential

Back 138

Spikes of electrical activity

Front 139

An action potential can initiate a contraction ?

Back 139

A single spike can initiate a contraction but multiple spikes are required to maintain forceful contractions

Front 140

Action potentials occur in bursts
With the progression of labour the electrical activity becomes diorganised and with a decrease in amplitude and duration
True ?

Back 140

False
As the labour progresses the electrical activity becomes more ORGANISED with an INCREASE in amplitude and duration

Front 141

The more frequent the action potential , the more frequent the contraction
True or false ?

Back 141

True

Front 142

The duration of the action potential, is the duration of the contraction
True of false

Back 142

True

Front 143

The number of spikes is reflected in the force of the contraction, therefore the more spikes there are the greater the contraction
True or false

Back 143

True

Front 144

The action potential increases membrane permeability to calcium, what does this do to the intracellular calcium stores ?

Back 144

This allows release of the intracellular stores

Front 145

What occurs to the muscle cell when there is intracellular uptake of calcium and potassium

Back 145

The muscle cell returns to its resting state

Front 146

Coordination and synchronization of contractions is mediated by ______ junctions between myometrial cells

Back 146

Gap junctions

Front 147

Gap junctions are proteins called ?

Back 147

Connexins

Front 148

What are gap junctions

Back 148

Gap junctions are INTERCELLULAR communication channels

Front 149

The number and size of gap junctions increases or decreases during pregnancy ?

Back 149

Increases

Front 150

Can a delay in gap junctions cause a prolonged labour

Back 150

Yes

Front 151

Can myometrial stretch increase or decrease gap junctions

Back 151

Myometrial stretch can also increse gap junctions

Front 152

Does progesterone or oestrogen stimulate gap junctions ?

Back 152

Oestrogen stimulates gap junctions by stimulating the synthesis of connexions

Front 153

Do prostaglandins stimulate gap junctions or inhibit ?

Back 153

Some inhibit some stimulate gap junction formation

Front 154

Progesterone inhibits labour and maintains the pregnancy by inhibition of oestrogen enhanced connexin synthesis
True or false

Back 154

Got to be true !

Front 155

Inadequate concentrations of gap junctions increases the effect of oxytocin
True or false

Back 155

False
Inadequtea concentration of gap junctions DECREASES the effectiveness of oxytocin ( therefore oxytocin may not be effective in post or pre term labour)

Front 156

PGI2 and relaxin increase gap junctions
True or false

Back 156

FALSE
Relaxin and PGI2 "uncouples" the gap junctions preventing synchronous uterine activity

Front 157

The intensity of the contraction increases from the top of the uterus downward
True or false

Back 157

False
The intensity of the contraction decreases and is essentially absent in the cervix

Front 158

Uterine contractions of between 10-12mmHg can be palpated abdominally
Does the women feel the contractions at a lower level ?

Back 158

No
A woman perceives contractions of greater than 15-20mmHg.

Front 159

At what pressure does a woman perceive pain ?

Back 159

Greater than 25mmHg- although this varies with individuals
Pressure during first stage is 20-30mmHg increasing to greater than 50mmHg in active phase

Front 160

Position , use of oxytocin, analgesics and anaesthesia have no influence on contractions
True or false

Back 160

its FALSE
All these things have an influence on contractions

Front 161

The inner circular, middle oblique/spiral and outer longitudinal make up the three layers of what ?

Back 161

The 3 layers of uterine muscle ( surrounding the uterus)

Front 162

Does the position during labour have any influence on the effectiveness of uterine contractions

Back 162

Yes

Front 163

During the first stage of labour would an upright position be benificial or lying down ?

Back 163

An upright position such as sitting, standing, squatting or kneeling would allow abdominal wall to relax and gravity causes the fundus to fall forward this directs the fetal head into the pelvic outlet, applies pressure on the cervix

Front 164

What effect does direct pressure have on the cervix ?

Back 164

Helps stimulate and stretch the cervix, feedback from the cervix to the myometrium may stimulate more intense contractions and shorten labour

Front 165

A cochrane review found that upright or supine/ lithotomy position decreased labour and complications

Back 165

Any upright position compared to supine or lithotomy( lying flat on back) decreased the length of second stage, need for forceps, episiotomy, severe pain, abnormal heart patterns

Front 166

Does placing a women in a side lying position promote greater uterine efficiency or decrease it ?

Back 166

Plaving a woman in a side lying position increased the intensity and decreased the frequency of contractions and PROMOTED GREATER UTERINE EFFICIENCY

Front 167

Frequency, intensity of uterine contractions and uterine activity increases or decreases with up right positions ?

Back 167

Increases

Front 168

Which position is the most effective for pushing, squatting or supine ?

Back 168

Squatting

Front 169

What is the Valsalva manoeuvre ?

Back 169

Bearing down ( pushing)

Front 170

A long vasalva push increases maternalintra-thoracic and intraabdominal pressure and decreases cardiac output, uterine blood flow and blood in the intervillious space
What effect can this have on fetal oxygenation

Back 170

This could cause fetal hypoxia, fetal acidosis and ffetal heart pattern changes