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191 Cards in this Set

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Define Work
A change in mass or distance
Energy exists in what 2 forms?
Kinetic energy and Potential energy
Define kinetic energy!
The energy of motion
Define potential energy
Stored energy
What is chemical energy?
Potential energy stored in chemical bonds, ATP
What form of energy is chemical energy associated with?
What is electrical energy?
The movement of charged particles!
What form of energy is electrical energy associated with?
Kinetic energy
What is mechanical energy?
Moving matter.
Define or describe radiant energy!
Energy in waves, electromagnetic
Define catabolism!
This is a decomposition reaction!
AB -> A+B
Define anabolism!
Anabolism is a synthesis reaction.
A+B -> AB
Define exchange reaction.
An exchange reaction is a reversible reaction.
AB <-> A+B
Define hydrolysis.
Water in... water goes in!
Define exergonic reaction.
An exergonic reaction produces more energy then it uses.
energy....
Define endergonic reaction.
Uses more energy than it produces.
Energy...
What is the difference between organic and inorganic compounds?
Organic molecules are based on carbon and hydrogen.
Define organic molecules.
Molecules based on carbon and hydrogen.
Define inorganic molecules.
Molecules not based on carbon and hydrogen.
Define nutrients.
Essential molecules obtained from food.
Define metabolites.
Molecules made or broken down in the body.
What are the four properties of water?
Solubility, reactivity, high heat capacity and lubrication.
Define solubility in water.
Waters ability to dissolve a solute in a solvent to make a solution.
Define reactivity and it's relationship to water in the body.
Most body chemistry uses or occurs in water.
Define high heat capacity.
Water's ability to absorb and retain heat.
Describe lubrication in relation to water in the body.
To moisten and reduce friction.
Define aqueous solution.
A solution in which water is the dissolving medium or solvent.
What do polar water molecules do in aqueous solutions?
Polar water molecules form hydration spheres around ions and small polar molecules to keep them in solution.
Define electrolytes.
Inorganic ions which conduct electricity in solution.
Define hydrophilic.
Reacts with water, water loving
Define hydrophobic.
Does not react with water, Phobos=fear. fears water
Define concentration in regards to solutions.
The amount of solute in a solvent.
Name 3 types of solutions relevant to the concentrations.
Body fluid, blood and liquids
Define pH.
The concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution.
Define neutral pH and give an example.
A balance of H+ and OH- . An example is pure water with a pH of 7.0.
Define an acid and its pH number.
An acid has high H+ concentration and low OH- concentration and pH is lower than 7.0.
Define a base and its pH concentration number.
A Base has low H+ concentration and high OH- concentration with a pH number higher than 7.0.
Excess H+ or acidosis can cause what in the body?
Damaged cells and tissues, altered proteins and interferes with normal physiological functions.
How do we control pH in the body?
With salts and buffers.
How do salts help control pH in the body?
They contain no H+ or OH- - no positive or negative ions in solution.
What are buffers and how do they help control pH in the body?
weak acid/salt compounds. Neutralizes either strong acid or strong base.
What are the inorganic compounds?
Water, acids, bases, salts & dissolved gases.
What are the organic compounds?
Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids and high energy compounds.
What are the functions of carbohydrates?
To provide an energy source and storage of glucose. They are also components of membranes.
What are the types of carbohydrates?
Monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides.
Give examples of monosaccharides.
Simple sugars, glucose and fructose.
What are disaccharides? And give one example.
Two simple sugars, sucrose.
What are polysaccharides and give an example.
Chains of many simple sugars. One example is glycogen.
What are lipids?
Mainly hydrophobic molecules such as fats, oils and waxes.
What are the primary functions of lipids?
To provide an energy source, structural component of cell membranes and chemical messengers.
Give examples of types of lipids.
Steroids, phospholipids, glycolipids, fatty acids and glycerides.
What are functional groups?
Molecular groups which allow molecules to interact with other molecules.
What are the two types of fatty acids?
Saturated and unsaturated.
Describe saturated acids.
Saturated with hydrogen, no covalent bonds
Describe unsaturated fatty acids.
One or more double bonds.
What are two types of Eicosanoids? (lipids)
Leukotrienes and Prostaglandins
What do Leukotrienes do?
they are active in the immune system.
What are prostaglandins?
Local hormones, short chain fatty acids.
What are glycerides?
The fatty acids attached to a glycerol molecule.
Name 2 lipids with hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails.
Phospholipids and glycolipids. They are structural components of cell membranes.
What are proteins at their most basic description, the basic elements and how many basic building blocks?
The most abundant and important organic molecules. Basic elements our carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. There are 20 amino acids, building blocks.
What are the characteristics of proteins?
They are basic building blocks of 20 amino acids.
What are the seven major protein functions?
Support, movement, transport, buffering, metabolic regulation, coordination and control, and defense.
Protein function is based on what?
Shape, shape is based on sequence of amino acids.
What is a peptide bond?
A peptide bond is a chemical bond formed between two molecules when the carboxyl group of one molecule reacts with the amino group of the other molecule releasing a molecule of water. This is a dehydration synthesis reaction, also known as a condensation reaction, and usually occurs between amino acids.
what is denaturation?
Loss of shape and function due to heat or pH.
Describe the shape of fibrous proteins.
Structural sheets or strands.
Describe the shape of globular proteins.
Soluble spheres with active functions.
What are enzymes?
Proteins that lower the activation energy of a chemical reaction. They are not changed or used up in the reaction.
Enzymes are ????
Catalysts
How do enzymes work?
Substrates bind to active site on the enzyme, aided by enzyme the substrates interact to form the product, then the product detaches from the enzyme. Entire process can now be repeated.
How do enzymes control metabolism?
Through activation energy. Activation energy gets a reaction started. Enzymes lower the amount of activation energy required for the reaction.
Define specificity in regards to enzyme characteristics.
One enzyme catalyzes one reaction.
Define saturation limits in regards to enzyme characteristics.
An enzyme's maximum work rate.
Define regulation in regards to enzyme characteristics.
The ability to turn off and on.
Define nucleic acids.
Large organic molecules, found in the nucleus, which store and process information at the molecular level, DNA and RNA.
What are nucleotides?
They are the building blocks of DNA and have 3 Molecular parts: sugar, phosphate group, nitrogenous base, A, G, T, C.
Define phosphorylation.
Adding a phosphate group to ADP with a high energy bond to form the high energy compound ATP.
What is ATPase?
The enzyme that catalyzes phosphorylation.
What are the two types of cells?
Sex sells and somatic cells.
What is the function of the cell membrane aka plasma membrane?
It is a lipid bilayer, its function is isolation, protection, sensitivity, support, controls entrance and exit of materials.
What are the cell membrane proteins?
Phospholipids, steroids and proteins.
What is the composition and function of cytosol?
Fluid component of cytoplasm. It function is to distribute materials by diffusion.
What is the function of the cytoskeleton?
Strength and support; movement of cellular structures and materials: cell movement
What is the function of the microvilli?
Increase surface area to facilitate absorption of extracellular materials.
What is the function of the ribosomes?
Protein synthesis
What is the function of the endoplasmic reticulum?
Synthesis of secretory products; intracellular storage and transport.
What is the function of the Golgi apparatus?
Storage, alteration and packaging of secretory products and lysosomal enzymes.
What is the function of the lysosomes?
Intracellular removal of damaged organelles or pathogens.
What is the function of the mitochondria?
Powerhouse of the cell, produces 95% of the ATP required by the cell.
What is the function of the nucleus?
Control of metabolism; storage and processing of genetic information: control of protein synthesis.
Describe the phospholipid bilayer of the cell membrane.
Double layer of phospholipid molecules: hydrophilic heads toward watery environment, both sides. Hydrophobic fatty acid tails inside membrane. Barrier to ions and water soluble compounds.
What are 6 functions of membrane proteins?
Anchoring proteins (stabilizers), recognition proteins (identifiers), enzymes, receptor proteins, carrier proteins, and channels.
What is the function of the cytoskeleton?
Structural proteins for shape and strength including microfilaments, intermediate filaments and microtubules.
What is the function of the centrioles?
Centriole form spindle apparatus during cell division.
What is the function of peroxisomes?
Enzyme containing vesicles that break down fatty acids and organic compounds, produce hydrogen peroxide and replicate by division.
What are nucleosomes?
DNA coiled around histones.
What is chromatin?
Loosely coiled DNA, cell not dividing
What are chromosomes?
Tightly coiled DNA, cells dividing
What is a gene?
The instructions for making a single protein.
What is DNA?
Instructions for every protein in the body.
What is selectively permeable lity?
A cell membrane allows some materials to move freely in and out of the cell while restricting other materials.
Selective permeability restricts material based on what?
Size , electrical charge, molecular shape, lipid solubility.
What are the two types of transport through a cell membrane?
Active transport and passive transport.
Describe active transport.
Transport through the cell membrane requires energy and ATP.
Describe passive transport.
No energy is required
What are the three categories of transport?
Diffusion (passive), carrier mediated transport (passive or active) and Vesicular transport (active)
What are the seven methods of transport?
Carrier mediated transport facilitated diffusion, osmosis, diffusion, exocytosis, secondary active transport, active transport and vesicular transport endocytosis.
Describe carrier mediated transport facilitated diffusion.
Carrier proteins passively transport solutes across a membrane down a concentration gradient.
describe osmosis.
Movement of water molecules toward solution containing relatively higher solute concentration: requires selectively permeable membrane.
Describe diffusion
Molecular movement of solutes; direction determined by relative concentrations
describe exocytosis
Fusion of vesicles containing fluids or solid or both with the cell membrane
Describe secondary active transport.
Carrier proteins passively transport 2 solutes with one, normally Na+, moving down its concentration gradient: the cell must later expend ATP to eject the Na+
Describe vesicular transport endocytosis.
Creation of membranous vesicles containing fluid or solid material
Describe active transport
Carrier proteins actively transport solutes across a membrane, often against a concentration gradient.
What are the two types of diffusion
Simple or channel mediated
Describe simple diffusion
Material which can diffuse through the cell membrane such as lipid soluble compounds, gases etc
describe channel mediated diffusion
Materials which pass through transmembrane proteins channels such as water soluble compounds and ions.
Define osmosis
The diffusion of water across the cell membrane
define Tonicity
The osmotic effect a solute on a cell.
What is an isotonic solution?
A solution that does not cause osmotic flow of water in or out of a cell. iso=equal. tonos=tension
Describe a hypotonic solution
A hypotonic solution gains water through osmosis, it has less solutes
Describe a hypotonic solution
A hypotonic solution gains water through osmosis, it has less solutes
Describe a hypertonic solution
A cell in a hypertonic solution losses water through osmosis. a cell in a hypertonic solution shrivels.
Describe co-transport
Two substances move in the same direction at the same time.
Describe countertransport
One substance moves in while another moves out.
How does carrier mediated facilitated diffusion work?
Carrier proteins transport molecules too large to fit through channel proteins: molecule binds to receptor site on carrier protein, protein changes shape, molecules pass through. Receptor site is specific to certain molecules.
How does active transport work?
Ion time to move I on: move substrates against concentration gradient, requires energy such as ATP. Exchange pump counter transports to iron at the same time.
How does the secondary active transport work?
It works through a sodium potassium pump: sodium concentration gradient drives glucose transport, then ATP energy pumps sodium back out.
How does Vesicular transport work for endocytosis and exocytosis?
Through a receptor mediated process using active transport and ATP.
Define pinocytosis
Bringing fluid in
Define phagocytosis
Bringing the whole cell in
DNA replication occurs during what phase of interphase?
During the S phase
What are 4 importance actions of mitosis?
Cellular replacement, tissue repair, development and tumor growth.
Define cytokinesis
Division of the cell
What is a centromere?
The point on a chromosome by which it is attached to a spindle fiber during cell division.
What is a chromatid?
Each of the two thread like strands into which a chromosome divides longitudinally during cell division. Each contains a double helix of DNA.
What is kinetochore?
Another term for centromere. the kinetochore is the protein structure on chromatids where the spindle fibers attach during cell division 2 pull sister chromatids apart.
What is the mitotic rate?
It is the rate of cell division
What regulates cell division?
Mitotic rate and energy. A slower mitotic rate means longer cell life.
Give an example of mitotic rate.
To find the mitotic rate, the number of cell dividing in a certain amount of cancer tissue is counted. Mitotic rate is used to help find the stage of melanoma and other types of cancer.
Define mitotic index.
Mitotic index is defined as the ratio between the number of cells in a population undergoing mitosis to the number of cell not undergoing mitosis.
Define Oncogenes.
mutated genes that cause cancer produces malignant cells
Define cancer
Illness that dis raps cellular controls and produces malignant cells
Define neoplasm
Also known as a tumor which is an enlarged mass of cells with abnormal cell grow and division.
Define benign tumor
Contain tumor, not life threatening.
Define malignant tumor
Spread into surrounding tissues, starts new tumors known as metastasis. Life-threatening.
Where do you cancers often begin?
Where stem cells are dividing rapidly.
What are the four types of tissue classes?
Epithelial, connective, muscle and neural.
What are the characteristics of epithelia?
Cellularity, polarity, attachment, avasculararity, and regeneration.
What are the functions of epithelia?
Provides physical protection, controls permeability, provides sation and produces specialized secretions.
What are the classes of epithelia based on shapes and layers?
Simple epithelium, stratified epithelium, squamous epithelia, cuboidal epithelium, and columnar epithelia.
What are the three modes of secretion?
Merocrine secretion, Apocrine secretion and Halocrine secretion.
Where does merocrine secretion occur?
Occurs in the sweat glands. Produced in the Golgi apparatus.
Where does apocrine secretion occur?
In the mammary gland. Produced in Golgi apparatus.
Where does Holocrine secretion occur?
In the sebaceous gland. They are released by cells bursting, killing gland cells. Gland cell are replaced by stem cells.
What are the functions of connective tissue?
Connect epithelium to the rest of the body, provide structure, store energy, transport materials.
What are the three classifications of connective tissues?
Connective tissue proper, fluid connective tissues, and supportive connective tissues.
What are the two categories of connective tissue proper?
Loose connective tissue and dense connective tissue.
What 3 fibers are found in connective tissue proper?
Collagen fibers, reticular fibers, and elastic fibers.
What are the three types of loose connective tissue in adults?
Areolar tissue, adipose tissue, and reticular tissue.
What are the three types of dense connective tissues in the adult body?
Dense regular connective tissue, dense irregular connective tissue, and elastic tissue.
What is the main fluid connective tissues in the body?
blood and lymph
Specifically what are three types of fluid connective tissues?
Red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets.
Are bone and blood considered connective tissue?
Yes
What are the three types of cartilage?
Hyaline cartilage, elastic cartilage, and fibrocartilage.
Where is hyaline cartilage found and what is its function?
It is found in synovial joints, sternum and trachea. It reduces friction between bones and provides stiff flexible support.
Where is elastic cartilage found and what is its function?
It is found in the external ear and epiglottis. Its function is supportive but bends easily.
Where is fibrocartilage found and what is its function?
It is found between pubic bones and intervertebral discs. It pads knee joints. Its function prevents bone to bone contact and limits movement.
What are osteocytes?
Bone cells. Small channels through matrix called canaliculi provide access for blood supply. Also called osseous tissue.
What are the four types of membranes?
Mucous, serous, cutaneous and synovial.
Define membranes
Membranes are physical barriers that line or cover portions of the body consisting of an epithelium and supported by connective tissues.
What molecule has nitrogen in it?
Amino acids
Where are mucous membranes found?
They line passageways that has external connections. Also in digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive tracts.
Where are serous membranes found?
They line cavities not open to the outside. are thin but strong. Serous membranes have a parietal portion covering the cavity and a visceral portion covering the organs.
Serous membranes also include which 3 "P" membranes?
Pleural membranes, peritoneum and pericardium.
The third type of membrane, cutaneous membrane, is found where?
The skin, surface of the body. Thick, waterproof and dry.
The synovial membrane can be found where?
In the joint cavities, moving joints, protects the ends of bones, for example synovial fluid and the knee joint.
What are the three muscle tissue types?
Skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle.
Where is skeletal muscle found?
Large body muscles responsible for movement.
Where is cardiac muscle found?
Only in the heart.
Where is smooth muscle found?
In the walls of hollow Contracting organs such as blood vessels, urinary bladder, respiratory, and reproductive tract.
What are the classifications of muscle cells?
Striated or nonstriated, may have a single nucleus or the multinucleated, can be controlled voluntarily or involuntarily.
Skeletal muscle characteristics are what?
Striated, voluntary, and multinucleated. They are long and thin.
Cardiac muscles are characterized by what?
Form branching networks connected at intercalated discs. They are striated, involuntary, and single nucleus.
Smooth muscle is characterized how?
Nonstriated, involuntary, and single nucleus.
What are the two kinds of neural cells?
Neurons and neuroglia.
What is the function of neurons?
They perform electrical communication.
What is the function of neuroglia cells?
They repair and supply nutrients to neurons.
The cell body contains what two main parts?
The nucleus and nucleolus
What are dendrites?
Short branches extending from the neuron cell body and receives incoming signals.
What is the axon?
Also known as the nerve fiber, carries out going electrical signals to their destination.