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223 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Which organs are retroperitoneal?
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Pancreas, duodenum, Caecum and ascending colon, descending colon, kidneys, adrenal glands.
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What are the muscles of the posterior abdominal cavity?
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Diaphragm
Psoas major (vertebrae to lesser trochanter) Quadratus lumborum (12th rib to iliac crest) |
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What might psoas spasm be indicative of?
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Infection or inflammation in a retroperitoneal organ
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What is the nerve supply to psoas major?
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Anterior rami, L1-3
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What is the origin of the lumbar plexus?
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L1-4
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What is the origin of the sacral plexus?
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L4-S4
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What is the 12th thoracic nerve?
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Subcostal nerve.
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What is the root and destination of the iliohypogastric nerve?
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L1 - supplies anterior abdominal wall
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What is the root and destination of the ilioinguinal nerve?
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L1 - superficial inguinal ring, upper medial thigh, anterior scrotum
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What is the root and destination of the genitofemoral nerve?
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L1-2, cremaster muscle.
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What level are the kidneys found, which plane do they lie on, and which is higher?
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T12-L3. Transpyloric plane, right lower than left (due to liver).
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What shape are the adrenal glands?
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Right = pointy hat, Left = Crescent moon.
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What are the relations of the right and left kidney?
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Right = adrenal, liver, hepatic flexure, duodenum
Left = spleen, stomach, pancreas, jejunum, descending colon |
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What surrounds each kidney?
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Capsule, fat, renal fascia (enclosing adrenal gland), more fat.
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The kidneys sit behind which ribs?
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Right = 12th, Left = 11th and 12th
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What is a urogram?
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Ingestion of radioopaque fluid which is excreted, showing ureter, renal pelvices and calyces.
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Briefly describe the major structures of the kidney?
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Capsule, cortex, medullary pyramids, papillae, minor calyces draining to major calyces, into the renal pelvis and hilum.
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What is the blood supply to the kidneys?
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Right and left renal arteries, directly from the aorta below superior mesenteric (L1-2), right higher than left weirdly.
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What is the issue with the renal segmental arteries?
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Around 5 segmental arteries branch off each renal artery in the hilum, these are end-arteries, so blockage = necrosis.
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How does urine pass down the ureter?
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Muscular wall, so peristaltic waves
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What is the blood supply to the ureter?
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Aorta, renal artery, vesicle artery (bladder)
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What are the three points of narrowing of the ureter?
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1) Renal pelvis forms ureter
2) Ureter crosses pelvic brim, over external iliac artery 3) Ureter passes through bladder wall |
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What causes renal stones and what are they made from?
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Risk factors - infection, dehydration and prolonged rest... Mostly buildups of calcium.
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Where is the pain felt in renal colic?
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12th rib/erector spinae
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What are the three zones of the cortex of the adrenal glands and main function?
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Zona glomerulosa (Aldosterone) - outer
Zona fasciculata (Glucocoricoids) - middle Zona reticularis (Sex hormones) - inner |
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What is the main constituent of the medulla of the adrenal glands and what does it secrete?
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Chromaffin cells, secreting adrenalin and noradrenalin
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What stimulates the cortex and the medulla of the adrenal glands?
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ACTH stimulates the cortex. Nerves stimulate the medulla.
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What is the blood supply and venous drainage of the adrenal glands?
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Blood supply, renal and inferior phrenic, venous drainage is left renal vein or IVC direct (on the right side).
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What is the pelvic inlet?
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Sacral promentory plus linea terminalis - arcuate line, pecten pubis and pubic crest
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Describe the features of the pubic bone?
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Tubercle, crest and two rami (superior and inferior) - inferior joins the ischial rami, and becomes the ischiopubic ramus
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Describe the features of the ischium?
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Has a tuberosity and a spine. Ramus becomes Ischiopubic ramus.
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What is the angle of forward rotation of the pelvis?
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60degrees.
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What are the main functions of the sacrotuberous and sacrospinous ligaments and what do they connect?
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Prevent over tilting of the pelvis.
Sacrotuberous runs from sacrum to tuberosity of the ischium Sacrospinous from ischial spine to sacrum |
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What are the main features of the female v male pelvis?
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Infra-pubic angle
Wider shorter cavity in females Oval inlet females, circular males |
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What are the four main pelvic shapes and how do you know?
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Gynaecoid (girl), android (boy) - typical
Anthropoid (girl) - but not oval, hence ghetto-booty Platypelloid (girl) - very oval, very shallow |
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What are the false pelvic boundaries?
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Above abdominal viscera, anteriorly abdominal wall, posteriorly L5/S1, laterally iliac fossae
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What are the true pelvic boundaries?
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Pelvic bones, and inferiorly, levaetor ani muscles.
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Which muscle covers the iliac fossae?
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Iliacus - joins psoas major and inserts on lesser trochanter
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Which muscles help define the wall of the true pelvis?
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Piriformis - Sacrum, out of greater sciatic foramen, inserts greater trochanter
Obturator internus - Around the obturator foramen |
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What membrane lies inferiorly to the true pelvis?
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Pelvic diaphragm (levaetor ani)
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What are the attachment sites for levaetor ani?
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Pubis, obturator membrane, ischial spine, coccyx
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What are the two bodies connected centrally to levaetor ani?
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Perineal body, and anococcygeal body.
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How does the ureter cross levaetor ani, and where?
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Urogenital hiatus, infront of the perineal body.
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How does the anal canal cross levaetor ani and where?
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Between the perineal and anococcygeal bodies.
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What innervates levaetor ani?
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Perineal branch of S4.
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What are the three parts of levaetor ani?
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Puborectalis, pubococcygeus and iliococcygeus.
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Which muscle forms the sling at the anorectal junction?
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Puborectalis.
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What is the biggest muscle in levaetor ani?
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Pubococcygeus.
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Where is iliococcygeus?
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Lateral to the other two.
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What is coccygeus?
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Muscle which fills the gap between piriformis and levaetor ani forms pelvic floor with levaetor ani.
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What lies underneath the pelvic diaphragm?
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Urogenital diaphragm.
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What is the nerve supply to pelvis viscera?
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SNS and PNS, both via the inferior hypogastric plexus.
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What is the nerve supply of the superior hypogastric plexus and what does it do?
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Intermesenteric plexus (L1-2), L3-4 splanchnic nerves. Splits at the aortic bifurcation into left and right hypogastric nerves.
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Where is the aortic bifurcation?
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L4.
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Where do the common iliac arteries bifurcate?
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Pelvic brim.
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Which artery supplies pelvic viscera, perineum and gluteal regions?
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Internal iliac artery.
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What are the main branches of the internal iliac?
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Anterior division = Obturator, internal pudendal and inferior gluteal
Superior and Inferior Vesicle arteries (female only - vaginal, uterine and ovarian branches) Posterior - iliolumbar, lateral sacral and superior gluteal |
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At what point does sigmoid colon become rectum?
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S3.
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What is the name of the fold of peritoneum in the male between the rectum and the bladder?
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Rectovesicle pouch
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What are the names of the two pouches in females and what do they separate?
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Pouch of Douglas (Rectouterine) and Vesicouterine in front.
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What shape is the perineum, what points mark it's boundaries and how is it divided?
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Diamond.
Front point - pubic symphysis Sides - Ischial tuberosities Back - Coccyx Divided into urogenital and anal triangles by an imaginary line between the two tuberosities |
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What is the name of the central tendon between vulva and anus in females?
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Perineal body
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What are the two divisions of fascia below the umbelicus?
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Camper's - continuous with thigh, superficial
Scarpa's - deeper, more membranous, continuous with Colle's fascia |
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What is the name of the membranous, superficial perineal fascia?
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Colle's fascia
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Which fascia attaches to the fascia lata of the thigh?
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Scarpa's
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What is the name given to the superficial layer of fascia in the perineum?
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Dartos fascia
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What muscle lies in the superficial fascia of the perineum in the male causing the 'scrunching' of the scrotum when cold?
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Dartos muscle
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Where does Colle's fascia attachanteriorly, laterally and posteriorly?
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Laterally to the ischiopubic rami, and posteriorly to the perineal membrane - anteriorly it is continuous with Scarpa's fascia
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What is the name of the fascia of the penis?
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Buck's fascia.
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Where is the superficial perineal pouch?
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Between membranous 'Colle's' fascia and the perineal membrane
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What are the muscular contents of the superficial perineal pouch?
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Ischiocavernosus, bulbospongiosus and superficial transverse perineal muscle
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Where is the deep perineal pouch?
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Between the perineal membrane and the pelvic diaphragm
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What are the muscular contents of the deep perineal pouch?
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Deep transverse perineal muscle and the sphincter of the urethra
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What are the muscles of levaetor ani?
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Left and right pubococcygeus, iliococcygeus and coccygeus
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What is the blood and nerve supply to the levaetor ani muscles?
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Blood - internal iliac, nerve pudendal (S2-4)
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What pierces the urogenital diaphragm?
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Urethra and vagina in females.
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What is the ischioanal fossa and what is it also known as?
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Space either side of anal canal in the anal triangle. Superiorly it is called the anterior recess, posteriorly it is called the deep perineal pouch
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What is the mons pubis?
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Pubic mound - adipose tissue lying over the pubic symphysis forming the anterior vulva
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What are the two lines for an episiotomy?
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Midline, or mediolateral
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What are the three cylindrical bodies of the penis and which contains the urethra?
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Corpus cavernosa (x2) on the dorsal aspect, corpus spongiosum on the ventral aspect ad contains the urethra.
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Which part of the penis forms the glans and the bulb?
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Corpus spongiosum.
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Which part forms the crura in the groin?
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Corpus cavernosa.
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Which part forms the clitoris in females?
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Corpus cavernosa.
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Where does the pudendal nerve enter the pudendal canal?
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Inferior to the ischial spine
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What nerve supplies the anal sphincter?
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Inferior rectal
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Which nerve supplies the transverse perineal muscle, ischiocavernosus and the urethral sphincter?
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Transverse perineal branch of the pudendal nerve
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What innervates the bulbospongiosus muscle?
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Bulbospongiosus branch of the pudendal nerve
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What nerve innervates most of the penis or clitoris?
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Dorsal nerve of the penis/clitoris (pudendal)
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Which bony landmarks are exploited in transvaginal and perineal pudendal nerve blocks?
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Transvaginal - Ischial spine
Perineal - Ischial tuberosity |
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What is the blood supply to the perineum and where does it come from?
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Internal pudendal artery, from the internal iliac artery
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What is the lymphatic drainage of the perineum and the pelvic organs?
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The perineum drains to superficial inguinal nodes. The viscera to common iliac nodes, except ovaries, which drain to para-aortic nodes.
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Where does the rectum begin and end?
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Begins S3, ends at the pelvic floor
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How can the rectum be divided by looking at peritoneum?
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Upper third has peritoneum anteriorly and laterally.
Middle third only anteriorly Lower third has no peritoneum |
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What are the boundaries of the ischioanal fossa?
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Anterior - Urogenital diaphragm
Posterior - Gluteus muscle and sacrotuberous lig Medial - Levaetor ani, sphicters and anal canal Lateral - Obturator internus |
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What marks the anorectal junction?
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Puborectalis (the sling) - forms part of the external anal sphincter
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What are the three semi-circular valves called?
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Valves of Houston (2 left, 1 right), or Plicae transversalis recti
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What are anal columns?
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Foldings of mucus membrane in the upper half of the anal canal
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What is the pectinate line?
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Made from the anal valves, which lie at the distal end of each anal column.
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What colour is the pecten, and where does it end?
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Blueish, ends at the white line of Hilton.
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Which muscle forms the internal anal sphincter?
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Inner circular smooth muscle
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What type of muscle forms the external anal sphincter?
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Outer skeletal muscle.
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What is the blood supply to the anal canal?
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Above pectinate line - inferior mesenteric
Below pectinate line - inferior rectal arteries, from internal iliac |
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What is the venous drainage of the anal canal?
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Above the pectinate line - hepatic portal system
Below the pectinate line - internal iliac veins |
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What is the innervation of the anal canal and how does it's sensitivity to pain differ along it's length?
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PNS above the pectinate line, so insensitive to pain. Below pectinate line it is pudendal nerve so highly sensitive.
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What arteries and veins are found in the anal columns?
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Terminal branches of the superior rectal artery and vein.
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What is the lymphatic drainage of the anal canal?
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Above pectinate line - pre-aortic, below - superficial inguinal
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Describe neural control of defecation.
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Distention of the rectum by faeces signals PNS afferents
SNS inhibits L1-2 control of sphincters SNS inhibits control of puborectalis via pudendal nerve PNS triggers contraction of smooth muscle to expel faeces |
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Where is the female urethral opening?
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2cms below the clitoris
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Name the various parts of the male urethra
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Preprostatic - internal orifice to superior prostate
Prostatic - receives the ejactulate Membranous - passes through urogenital diaphragm (external sphincter) Spongiose - dilated at first, receives lots of glands |
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Which sphincter control bladder continence in the male?
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The external urethral sphincter, in the urogenital diaphragm
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How long is the female urethra?
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4cms.
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What is the urethral crest?
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A fold of membranous mucosa on the posterior wall of the urethra
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Why do boys need an internal urethral sphincter and where is it?
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To prevent semen from swimming up into the bladder or urine leaving in ejaculation, it lies at the neck of the bladder
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What lubricates the female urethra?
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Skene's glands
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What is the seminal colliculus and what openings are found there?
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Raised portion containing the prostatic utricle and the two ejaculatory ducts
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Where could you find the ejaculatory duct openings?
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Inferior to the prostatic utricle on the seminal colliculus
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The ejaculatory ducts are formed from what?
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Ducts of the Vas Deferens and the seminal vesicles
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Which two routes spread prostatic cancer?
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Lymphatics, via the nodes around the internal and common iliacs and para-aortic nodes. Also venous plexus, via internal iliac vein and IVC.
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Why does prostatic cancer commonly spread to the spine?
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Prostatic venous plexus connects to vertebral veins (Batson)
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What is the blood supply and venous drainage to the bladder?
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Vesicle arteries, from internal iliac, and ditto veins.
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Which artery does the ureter cross as it enters the pelvis?
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External iliac, just by the pelvic brim
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Which artery is clamped in a historectomy to avoid complications due to its proximity to the ureter?
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Uterine artery
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What points mark the trigone in the bladder?
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The ureters which arrive obliquely, and the urethra which leaves inferiorly
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What prevents reflux of urine into the ureters?
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Contraction of the bladder closes the ureteric openings
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What attaches the bladder to the umbilicus?
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Median umbilical ligament attaches to the apex of the bladder
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What is the median umbilical ligament dervied from, and what is it?
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Urachus - a remnant of the allantois. In some patients urine can weep from the umbelicus
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Where is the apex and neck of the bladder?
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Apex is anterior, forming the median umbelical ligament. Neck is inferior, by the urethral opening
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What muscle lies in the bladder and what is it's innervation?
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Detrusor, innervated by PNS S2-4
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Describe the process of micturation.
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When bladder is empty, afferents do not fire so sphincters are tight, and detrusor is relaxed (SNS T10-L2, hypogastric), when full, afferents fire more, this opens the sphincters and contracts the detrusor (PNS S2-4 pelvic nerves)
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Which nerves control the external urethral sphincter?
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Somatic (voluntary) nerves - Pudendal
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When is the adult bladder a pelvic organ?
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When empty
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When is the infant bladder a pelvic organ?
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Never. It is abdominal when empty and full.
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What ligaments run from the pubis to the neck of the bladder?
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Pubovesical ligaments - Pubourethral in females, puboprostatic in males
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Where does the urethra normally tear?
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At the prostato-membranous junction
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Where would you find the cardiac region of the stomach?
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6th costal cartilage
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Where would you find the pylorus of the stomach?
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L1 (2cms from the midline)
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What are the regions of the stomach?
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Cardia - Mucus
Fundus - Storage Body - Mucus, HCl, Pepsinogen, Intrinsic Factor Antrum - Gastrin Pylorus |
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What is the difference between adventitia and serosa?
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Adventitia is found around retroperitoneal organs, serosa is around intraperitoneal organs
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What are rugae?
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Folds of mucous membrane in the stomach
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What level is the coeliac trunk?
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T12
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Describe the four parts of the duodenum.
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Divided into 4 parts:
First begin with pylorus and heads superiorly, posteriorly and laterally for 5 cms First section ends with the superior duodenal flexure. Only first 2cms is intraperitoneal. Second section heads down to L3, before turning medially at inferior duodenal flexure The third section runs transversely before turning superiorly again The fourths section runs superiorly to the duodenal-jejunal flexure |
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At which point in the duodenum does the pancreatic and common bile duct enter?
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The second descending part contains the major duodenal papilla (Ampulla of Vater) into which the hepatopancreatic duct drains.
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What is the blood supply to the duodenum?
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First part to the ampulla of vater in the descending section is foregut - coeliac trunk, supplied by superior pancreaticoduodenal artery, fro the gastroduodenal artery. Second part, distal to this point is superior mesenteric, via the inferior pancreaticoduodenal artery
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What are the three branches of the coeliac trunk?
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Left gastric, splenic and common hepatic.
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Which artery supplies the oesophagus?
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Left gastric.
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Which arteries supplies the lesser curvature?
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Left gastric, anastamosing with the right gastric, which comes from the hepatic artery.
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Describe the path of the splenic artery.
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Comes from the coeliac trunk, runs along the top of the pancreas, supplying it. Then supplies the spleen via the iliorenal ligament, and gives the left gastroepiploic which supplies the greater curvature.
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What are the two divisions of the common hepatic artery?
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Proper hepatic and the gastroduodenal
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The proper hepatic divides into right and left branches, but what comes off these?
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Cystic artery comes off the right branch
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Where does the right gastric originate and what does it supply?
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From the proper hepatic, supplies the lesser curvature.
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What does thh gastroduodenal becomes and what do these branches supply?
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Right gastroepiploic, supplying the greater curvature, and the superior pancreaticoduodenal which supplies the distal duodenum and head of the pancreas.
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What is the venous drainage of the stomach?
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Gastric, gastroepiploic and splenic veins, all draining into the hepatic portal vein.
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What is the lymphatic drainage of the stomach?
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Coeliac (pre-aortic) nodes, then into the thoracic duct via the cisterna chyli.
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The right and left vagi become what as they pass through the oesophageal sphincter?
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The anterior and posterior trunks.
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Where is innervation for the distal colon derived from (post the splenic flexure)?
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S2-S4, pelvic splanchnic and inferior hypogastric.
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What happens in the intestines in response to parasympathetic stimulation?
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Stimulate the submucosal and myenteric plexuses increasing smooth muscle and gland activity.
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What happens as a result of sympathetic innervation?
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Vasoconstriction and inhibition of peristalsis.
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Where does foregut pain refer to?
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Epigastrium, T6-T9.
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Where is the spleen?
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Upper left hypochondrium, behind 9th to 11th ribs, superior border level with mid axillary line.
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What does the spleen do?
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Macrophages breakdown aging red blood cells, produces lymphcytes and is a store for 1/3rd of platelets and new red blood cells.
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Why might an enlarged spleen cause a low platelet count?
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Bigger spleen will store more platelets, so fewer are circulating.
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How does the spleen respond to sympathetic stimulation?
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Releasing stored red blood cells.
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Why is a ruptured spleen an emergency?
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Highly vascular.
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How can you identify the two surfaces of a spleen?
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Posterior smooth, anterior notched.
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What are the visceral relations of the spleen?
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Stomach, tail of pancreas and splenic flexure of the colon.
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What are the two splenic mesenteries which make the spleen so mobile?
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Iliorenal and gastrosplenic ligaments.
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What might cause an enlarged spleen?
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Increased immune response, need to breakdown increased numbers of red cells (thalassaemia), portal hypertension, heart failure, cancer.
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What can the liver do which no other organ can?
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Regenerate.
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Roughly where does the liver lie?
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Superiorly along the line of the xiphisternum, as far as the left nipple, inferiorly no lower than the costal margin.
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List the main functions of the liver.
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Production of bile, protein and cholesterol
Glycogenesis Iron storage Production of urea Clearing blood of toxins and drugs Regulating clotting by production of clotting factors Removing bacteria from the blood |
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What is the bare area?
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Superior aspect of the liver which has no peritoneum.
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What are the names of the two potential spaces generated by reflections of peritoneum?
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Sub-phrenic (above, under diaphragm) and sub-hepatic below (also called hepatorenal)
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What are the four lobes of the liver?
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Left, right, quadrate and caudate.
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What ligament separates left and right lobes?
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Falciform ligament.
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What is the coronary ligament?
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Attaches the liver to the diaphragm superiorly.
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What are the left and right triangular ligaments?
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Attach the liver to the diaphragm inferiorly.
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What is the round ligament?
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Obliterated umbelical vein which sits in the free edge of the falsiform ligament.
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What are the left and right functional lobes, what demarcates them and why are they so called?
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The caudate and quadrate lobes are anatomically part of the right lobe, but drain into the left hepatic vein and receive blood from teh left hepatic artery - hence functionally they are left lobe. The IVC and gall bladder form the division.
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Is the IVC intra or retro peritoneal?
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Retroperitoneal.
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Reflections of the coronary ligament form what anteriorly and posteriorly?
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Anteriorly the falsiform ligament, and posteriorly the lesser omentum.
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What is the porta hepatis and where does it lie?
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Free border of the lesser omentum, its the point of entry and exit for the hepatic portal vessels - the portal vein, hepatic artery and hepatic ducts
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What is the ligamentum venosum?
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Remnant of the ductus venosus, which ran from the umbelical vein to the IVC
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Which surface is the visceral surface and what are it's relations?
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Posterior surface. Relations are stomach, duodenum, right kidney and hepatic flexure of the colon
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What blood is carried in the hepatic portal vein?
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All venous blood from the GI tract containing all nutrients. This makes up 75% of it's supply (the other 25% is arterial blood from the hepatic artery).
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What is portal hypertension and what causes it?
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Liver disease can cause reduced liver function, blood to the liver in portal system backs up, causing varicosities and oedema.
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What are the four pathways for drainage in portal hypertension?
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1) Lower oesophagus
2) Anal canal 3) Recanalisation of the umbelical vein to anterior abdominal wall 4) Recanalisation of the ductus venosus to the IVC |
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What is the medusas head?
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Blood flow away from the umbelicus in superficial abdominal veins from recanalised umbelical vein in portal hypertension.
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What symptoms would yo expect with a blocked IVC?
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Lower half of body oedema (not gut), abdo wall vein enlargement, but blood flow reversed to get around blockage. Piles.
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What is the gall bladder and where does it lie?
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A cyst containing bile salts for digestion of lipids. Found at junction between linea semilunaris and costal margin.
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What is the blood supply to the gall bladder?
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Cystic artery comes off the right branch of the hepatic artery.
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What structures make up the common bile duct?
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Cystic duct, plus right and left hepatic ducts (together called common bile duct).
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What is the sphincter of Oddi?
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Where the common bile duct joins the pancreatic duct
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What are the five sections of the pancreas and where does it sit?
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Head, uncinate process, neck, body, tail. Head and uncinate process are in the C of the duodenum. Neck to right of aorta. Body runs behind aorta and stomach, tail is by spleen.
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What is the blood supply to the pancreas?
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Splenic artery, and superior and inferior pancreaticoduodenal.
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What is ascites?
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Pathological accumulation of fluid in the abdominal cavity.
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What is the blood supply to the midgut?
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Superior mesenteric artery.
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Where is the root of the mesentery?
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From the duodenaljejunal flexure to the iliocecal flexure.
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How long is the small intestine and what is the rough apportionment of its parts?
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6m approx. 5% duodenum (30cms), <40% jejunum (2.5m), <60% ileum (3.5m)
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Which part plays a major role in iron absorption?
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Duodenum.
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Which part plays a major role in folate absorption?
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Jejunum.
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Which part plays a major role in B12 absorption?
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Terminal ileum.
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Where is the duodenum?
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L1-L3
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What are plicae circulares?
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Folds of mucous membrane in the duodenum
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What is the ligament of Trietz?
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Holds the duodenal-jejunal flexure in place.
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Where is the upper half of the second part of the kidney?
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Sandwiched between the right kidney, ureter and beginning of the transverse colon.
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What separates the lesser omentum from the IVC?
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Epiploic foramen - the inferior boundary is the first part of the duodenum.
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How do you determine jejunum from ileum?
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Jejunum has more folds, so feels denser
Jejunum has less fat, so is pinker Jejunum has fewer vascular arcades |
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Where would you find jejunum and ileum?
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Jejunum in the umbelical region. Jejunum in the suprapubic/right inguinal regions
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How do the plicae circulares change in the intestines?
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Prominent in jejunum, less prominent in proximal ileum, absent in distal ileum.
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What are Peyer's patches and where are they found?
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Aggregates of lymphoid tissue. Ileum only.
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What are the parts of the colon, which are intra- and retro-peritoneal?
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Caecum and vermiform appendix, ascending, transverse, descending and sigmoid colons. All retroperitoneal bar the transverse and sigmoid parts which are intraperitoneal.
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Is the appendix retro-peritoneal?
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No, it has it's own mesentry (mesoappendix)
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What is the main movement in the colon?
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Mass movement.
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What are taeniae coli?
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Three longitudinal bands of muscle
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What are haustrations?
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Sacculations of colon formed by longitudinal muscle.
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What is McBurney's point and where is it?
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The base of the appendix. Lies 2/3rds of way along line from umbelicus to ASIS.
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Where does the tip of the appendix lie?
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Pelvic ~30%, retrocaecal 60%.
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What is the blood supply to the appendix?
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Appendicular artery (superior mesenteric)
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Where is the sigmoid colon?
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Pelvic brim to 3rd sacral vertebrae.
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What are the 5 branches of the superior mesenteric artery and what do they supply?
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Inferior pancreaticoduodenal - pancreas and duodenum
Jejunal and ileal branches Ileocolic Right colic Middle colic |
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What are the 3 branches of the inferior mesenteric?
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Left colic, sigmoid and superior rectal.
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What levels do the superior and inferior mesenteric branch from the aorta?
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Superior L1, inferior L-3.
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Where is lymphatic drainage of the intestines based?
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Pre-aortic nodes, L1-L3, Cysterna Chyli, thoracic duct.
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