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177 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is physiology?
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Normal functions of the body
Study of molecules, cells, organ systems Relationship among organ systems Integration of various organ system functions |
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Comparative Physiology
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Understanding similarities and differences of different organ systems among domestic animals
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Biological Membrane Composition
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45-50% lipid-phospholipid
45-50% protein 3-5% carbohydrate cholesterol |
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Biological Membrane Functions
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Compartmentalization
Selective transport Information processing and transmission Organizing biochemical reactions in space |
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Nucleoplasm
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Network of chromatin fibers
Histones DNA Nucleolus- RNA and proteins |
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Nucleus Function
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Genetic Code
Directs cellular processes Regulate protein expression |
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Protein Synthesis
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DNA transcribed to RNA translated to Protein
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RER
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protein synthesis
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SER
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lipid synthesis
biotransformation |
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Ribosomes
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protein synthesis
ribosomal RNA |
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Golgi Apparatus
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Flattened vesicles
Protein process Secretory Vesicle Synthesis |
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Mitochondrion
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Oxidation Power House of the cell
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Mitochondria Inner Membrane
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Enzymes for citric acid cycle
Fatty acid oxidation Electron transport |
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Mitochondria Intermembrane Space
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Enzymes for nucleotide metabolism
Circular DNA molecules- codes for synthesis of subunits of NADH dehydrogenase Cytochrome c oxidase ATP synthase tRNA rRNA |
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Secretory Vessicle
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Cytoplasmic Vesicle
Proteins packaged for secretion |
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Storage Vesicle
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Cytoplasmic Vesicle
Lipid Droplet |
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Lysosome
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Cytoplasmic Vesicle
Degradative enzyme |
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Catalysis
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Increases rate of a chemical reaction without altering the equilibrium of the reaction
Protein catalysts called enzymes |
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Reaction Coupling
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Two reactions are coupled by protein molecules to transfer energy
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Transport
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Proteins provide a pathway for the transport of molecules into and out of the cel
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Structure
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Proteins provide the structure to cells and tissues
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Signaling
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Information Transmission by receptors, signal transduction
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Shape determines function
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Proteins bind to other molecules specifically
Proteins change shape Protein shape is lock site Ligand fits into lock Proetin changes shape alters binding of ligands |
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Ligand Binding
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Ligands bind at B
Allosteric change in A so A is no longer a binding site Ligand no longer binds to A |
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Covalent Modification
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Allosteric Change*
Ligand doesn't bind Phosphorylation (phosphate group covalently linked to protein) of protein alters shape Protein can now bind to ligand |
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Electrical Voltage, pH
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Charge positive on outside, charge minus on inside.... flip flop and let Ca2+ in through protein
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Lipid Bi-layer Cell Membrane- Selective Barrier
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Barrier to charged particles and large polar molecules
Not barrier to monosaccharide, amino acid, nucleosides, polymers, small polar molecules, water, oily or hydrophobic |
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Bulk Transport
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Endocytosis
Exocytosis |
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Exocytosis
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Out of the cell
Membrane is carrier compartment Large membrane surface pinches off to form small vesicle Membrane fusion results in recycling or renewal of plasma membrane |
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Endocytosis
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Transport of large molecules in
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Pinocytosis
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Ingestion of small globules into the cell
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Phagocytosis
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Ingestion of large particles, bacteria, cells, degenerating tissues
Frequent in macrophages |
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Simple Diffusion
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Concentration Dependent
Lipid soluble through the lipid bilayer ex O, N, CO2, -OH Water and lipid insoluble through protein channels Diffusion rate depends on molecular size to water |
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Voltage Gating
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Diffusion
Gate shape responds to changes in electrical potential Action Potential Generation |
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Chemical or Ligand Gating
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Gate shape responds to changes in electrical potential
Acetylcholine channels in skeletal muscles |
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Facilitate Diffusion
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Needs a carrier protein
Glucose and most amino acids GLUT (Glucose transporter) is carrier protein for glucose transport Number of transporters is dynamic and varies |
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Primary Active Transport
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Pumps ions against concentration gradient
Requires energy ATPase in cell membrane pumps NA out and K into against concentration gradient |
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Secondary Active Transport
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Energy from downhill diffusion of sodium into the cell coupled to uphill transport of glucose and amino acids
From gut lumen into intestinal cell |
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Symporters
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Cotransport
2 different solutes simultaneously in the same direction Na+/Glucose into the gut |
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Antiporters
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Cotransport
2 different solutes simultaneously in opposite directions Na+, K+, ATPase |
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Uniporters
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Cotransport
Transport one kind of solute |
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Signal Transduction- Receptor
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Receptor (membrane bound) activation initiates signal transduction
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Signal Transduction- Second messenger
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Mechanisms mediate intracellular signaling
-Changes in cAMP or cGMP conc -Changes in inositol triphosphate IP3 concentration - Changes in Ca2+ conc within cytoplasm |
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Signal Transduction- Third Messenger
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Nuclear Transcription Factors
Leads to response |
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Serpentine receptor
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another name for G protein coupled receptor
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Heptahelical receptor
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another name for G Protein coupled receptor
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G protein coupled receptor
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100s
Similar protein shape Snake in and out of membrane 7 times interact with GTPase molecule Associates with membrane through lipid tails |
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Signaling through cytoplasmic and nuclear receptors
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Steroid hormones
Retionoic acid Thyroid hormone Gene expression determines function |
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Down regulation
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Less sensitive
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Up regulation
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More sensitive
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Phosphorylation
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hypersensitization
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Dephosphorylation
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desensitization
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CNS
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Brain
Spinal cord Integration Longitudinal organization Spinal cord Medulla Pons Midbrain Diencephalon Telencephalon |
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PNS
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Efferent (Motor)
Afferent (Sensory) Sensory input Motor output |
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Efferent- Somatic
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to skeletal muscle
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Efferent- Visceral
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to cardiac muscle
to smooth muscle to exocrine glands |
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Afferent- Somatic
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from skin
from retina from membranous labyrinth |
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Afferent- Visceral
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from thoracic and abdominal organs
from olfactory epithelium from taste buds |
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Action potential generated on sensory afferent...
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enter spinal cord along axons in dorsal roots
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Action potential generated on motor efferents....
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exit the spinal cord along axons in ventral roots
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Meniges
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Protective membrane enclosing brain and spinal cord
Made of fibroblast cells |
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Pia mater
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Inner most layer
In close contact with brain and spinal cord |
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Arachnoid
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Middle layer of web like strucutre
Cavities filled with cerebrospinal |
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Dura mater
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Outer most layer
Thick layer of fibroblast cells Fused with skull/vetebral canal inside |
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Cerebrospinal Fluid
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Produced by choroid plexus in ventricles
Cushions brain Transports hormones and metabolites |
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Cisterna magna
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sampling of CSF
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Neurons
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10 billion
Produce/process neurotransmitters Electrical impulses |
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Glial Cells
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100-500 billion
Glue Support neurons |
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Neuron- Cell body
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aka soma or perikaryon
Makes neurotransmitters |
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Neuron- dendrites
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Brings input information
Receive signals |
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Neuron- Axon
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Sends output signal
Integrates signals |
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Axon hillock
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Action potential originating site
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Neuron- pre-synaptic terminal
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Stores neurotransmitter vesicles
Mitochondria |
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Synapse- Neurotransmitter
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Produced in soma
Transported through axon Released into synapse Metabolized in synapse or reabsorbed into presynaptic terminal |
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Presynaptic Terminal
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Stores neurotransmitters in vesicles
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Acetylcholine releasing synapses
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Cholinergic
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Acetyl coA + choline
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Choline acetyl transferase makes it acetylcholine
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Acetylcholine
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acetyl choline esterase makes it acetate + choline
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Catecholamine synapses
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adrenergic
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Pitutitary Peptides
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Neuropeptides
Growth Hormone Prolactin |
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Hypothalamic Peptides
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Neuropeptides
Oxytocin Vasopressin Growth hormone releasing hormone Gonadotropin releasing hormone |
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Oligodendrocytes
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CNS
Glial Cell smaller than neuron with fewer processes Myelin basic protein Generate action potential |
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Schawnn Cells
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PNS
Glial Cell smaller than neuron with few processes Wrap around axon for insulation, conduction, and survival Do not generate action potential |
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Astrocytes or astroglia
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Multiple processes or end foot
Intermediate filament, glial fibrillary acidic protein Glycogen fuel storage, metabolic support Absorb excess K+ from extracellular space around neurons released during action potential transmission Processes (end feed) connect to blood vessels, form tight junctions; blood brain barrier |
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Blood Brain Barrier
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Walls are joined by tight junctions that restrict passage of material
Capillaries are part of neurovascular unit Carrier mediated transport |
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Determinants of Resting Membrane Potential
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Na, K ATPase Pump
Permeability of the membrane-resting more permeable to exit K Trapped intracellular anions +++ charge outside cell membrane --- charge inside cell membrane |
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Action Potential
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Electrical impulse
Depolarization phase - intracellular voltage from -75 to +20 V Extensive opening of voltage gated Na channels initially Closure of voltage gated Na+ channels at the peak Repolarization Closure of Na channels and exit of K ions |
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Pyramidal system
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Voluntary, Learned, Skilled
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Extrapyramidal system
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Involuntary, Subconscious
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Control of Posture and Locomotion
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Cerebellum
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Motor neuron pools
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cell bodies of motor units supplying a given muscle are arranged in longitudinal columns within the ventral horn
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Spinal Premotor Neurons
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Synapse on motor neuron supplying muscles
Intermediate zone |
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Corticospinal Tract
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Spinal Cord
Direct route primarily from the motor cortices to contraleteral spinal cord gray matter |
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Corticopontine Tract
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Pons, Cerebellum
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Corticobulbar Tract
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Brain Stem
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Reticulospinal Tract
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Medulla oblongata
Spinal cord |
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Vestibulospinal Tract
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Medullary vestibular nuclei
Spinal cord |
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Tectospinal Tract
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Optic tectum
Spinal cord |
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Cerebellum
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Caudal to the cerebral hemisphere and dorsal to the brainstem
Compares the intended movements with actual movement and makes appropriate adjustments 50% of brain's neuron are here Fine tuning Not sensation or initiating movement Learning motor memory |
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Spinocerebellum
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To descending brainstem and corticospinal pathways
Proper execution of coordinated movement |
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Cerebrocerebellum
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Motor cortices
Planning coordinated, properly timed movement sequences |
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Vestibulocerebellum
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Vestibular nuclei
Coordinated balance and eye movement |
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Sclera
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Outermost layer
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Cornea
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Clear, transparent epithelial layer
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Choroid
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Vascular
Pigmented layer |
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Retina
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Photoreceptors
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Aqueous humor
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Fills anterior and posterior chambers
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Iris
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Separates anterior and posterior chambers
Dilator and constrictor smooth muscle |
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Pupil
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Aperture
Created by iris |
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Lens
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Transparent
Suspended by ligaments |
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Vitreous humor
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Gelatinous fluid
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Tapetum
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Light reflecting pigment
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To see nearby ciliary muscles....
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Muscle contracts
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Rods and cones
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Retinal Cell
Photoreceptors |
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Bipolar cells
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Retinal Cell
Connects rods or cones to ganglion cells |
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Horizontal cell
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Retinal Cells
Connect rods, cones and bipolar cells |
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Amacrine cells
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Retinal Cell
Connect bipolar and ganglion cells |
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Rhodopsin
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Retinal Cell
Light sensitive pigment Respond to entire visual spectrum but don't have various opsins to discriminate wavelength/color |
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Cones
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Less sensitive to light
Day vision High acuity color vision Central retina (fovea) |
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Rods
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Most sensitive to light
Night vision Low acuity Achromatic Peripheral retina |
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Visible spectrum
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Between ultraviolet and infrared
400nm-750nm |
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Ganglion
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Optic Nerve
Transmit impulses through optic nerve |
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Lateral geniculate nucleus
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Visual impulses reach here in the brain
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Visual Cortex
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recreates images
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Outer ear
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Air filled
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Tympanic membrane
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Vibrated by sound
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Ossicles
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Middle ear
Moved by tympanic membrane |
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Ossicular movement
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Displaces the oval window of inner ear
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Basilar membrane
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traveling wave from displacing oval window
Stiff at the base and wide and more flexible farther from base |
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Frequency of sound decreases
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Region of maximum displacement of the basilar membrane is located farther from the base
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Bony Labrynth
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Cochlea and vestibular organ
Filled with perilymph |
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Cochlea
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Inner ear
Perceives sound Membranous labryinth filled with endolymph |
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Organ of Corti
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Hair cell receptor
Transduces sound waves into action potentials |
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Auditory Nerves
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Carries action potential to the brain
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Vestibular System
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information for reflexes involving spinal motor neurons, cerebellum and extra-ocular muscles of the eye
Utricle, sucule, 3 semicircular ducts with ampulla |
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Semicircular ducts
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Right angles to each other
Detect rotary acceleration and deceleration of the head Ducts filled with endolymph |
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Hair Cells
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Each hair cell has several cilia at apex in size order, and synapses on a sensory neuron of cranial nerve
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Utricle and Saccule
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Contain macula to transduce static head tilt or linear accel/decel
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Autonomic Nervous System
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Self-governing, independently functioning
Peripheral motor and sensory system innervating smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, glands Regulates vital functions Essential for homeostasis |
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Somatic Motor System
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Axons originating from CNS directly innervates skeletal muscle
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Autonomic Nervous System
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Innervates smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands
Axons from CNS interrupted at ganglion and a post ganglionic nerve innervate the target organ |
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Sympathetic Nervous System
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use center area
Increases heart rate Pupil dilation Dilate bronchial smooth muscle Sweating |
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Parasympathetic Nervous System
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Use brain, pons and sacral
Oculomotor, Facial, Glossopharyngeal, Vagus Decrease heart rate Pupil constriction |
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Acetylcholine Receptors
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Nicotinic
Muscarinic |
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Nicotinic Receptor
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In sympathetic ganglia and adrenal medulla
Acetylcholine and nicotine stimulates No effect by muscarine |
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Muscarinic Receptors
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Present in parasympathetic effector organs
Acetylcholine and muscarine stimulates No effect by nicotine |
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Noradrenaline Receptors- alpha
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alpha 1- smooth muscle
alpha 2- pancreatic islets |
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Noradrenaline Receptors- beta
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beta 1- heart, kidneys
beta 2- smooth muscle beta 3- adipose tissue |
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Sympathetic stimulation
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Effects are more widespread throughout the body
Effects are seen in discrete organs as well Effects last longer due to circulating norepinephrine or epinehrine from adrenals Fight or Flight Stress Response |
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Parasympathetic Stimulation
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Effects are seen in discrete organs
Anabolic or vegetative functions of daily living |
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Autonomic Reflexes
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Control of Blood Pressure
Pupillary Light Reflex |
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Skeletal muscle % of body weight?
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40%
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Smooth and cardiac muscle % of body weight?
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10%
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Skeletal muscle and locomotion
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Movement results from contraction of skeletal muscles
Contraction results in flexion or extension of joint Muscle is attached to bone by tendons Has points of origin and insertion |
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Skeletal Muscle Fiber Structure
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10-80 um in diameter
Multinucleated Multiple mitochondria and organelles Contains myofibrils |
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Sarcolemma
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Outer limiting membrane
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Myofibril- made of?
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Sarcomere
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Sacromere
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basic contractile unit of the muscle fiber
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Satellite cells
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Progenitor cells for muscle cells
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5 Sarcomere proteins
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Actin
Tropomyosin Troponin Myosin Titin |
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Actin Filament
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Attached to Z disc
Each filament has two F actin proteins and two tropomyosin helix Troponin on tropomyosin |
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Troponin
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Globular protein
High affinity for calcium ion |
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Myosin Filament
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filament is made of >200 myosin molecules
2 heavy chain polypeptides- wrap around each other to form double helix 4 light chain polypeptides |
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Titin
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Maintains side by side relationship of actin and myosin filaments
One of largest protein molecules in the body, MW=3 million Springy act as framework that lines up actin and myosin filaments |
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Z disc composition
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Filamentous protein
Attach myofibril to one another |
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Transverse tubule system
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Present in skeletal and cardiac muscle
Carries action potential to the interior of the muscle fiber |
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Cardiac muscle
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Cells are shorter than skeletal muscles
Cells connected by intercalated disks Action potential spread faster due to syncytium Gap junctions |
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Smooth muscle
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No striated arrangement of actin and myosin
Cells are smaller and shorter than skeletal muscle NO transverse tubules |
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Neuromuscular Synapse
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Specialized junction where a motor neuron comes into close apposition with a skeletal muscle cell
Unidirectional communication between motor neuron and muscle cells |
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Energy Sources for Muscle Contraction
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Stored ATP and phosphocreatine
Muscle glycogen breakdown (glycogenolysis) Oxidative metabolism |
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Muscle glycogen breakdown (glycogenolysis)
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Produce ATP rapidly
No oxygen Accumulation of end products Cannot support contraction for long time |
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Oxidative metabolism
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Requires oxygen
Requires extensive blood supply Supports extremely long-term maximal muscle activity |
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Fast Twitch
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Type 2
Large- great strength Rapid contraction Low endurance Extensive SR Lots glycolytic enzymes Less extensive blood supply Fewer mitochondria White muscle Breast muscle of chicken and turkey |
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Slow Twitch
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Type 1
Small Slow contraction Extensive blood supply More mitochondria Myoglobin, the red pigment Red muscle Migrating bird flight muscle, mammal limbs |
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Disorders affecting neuromuscular junction
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Myasthenia gravis
Hypocalcemia Hypomagnesemia Toxins-tetanus |
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Disorders affecting muscle fibers
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Vitamin E deficiency
Selenium deficiency Hypothyroidism |
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THE
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END
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