Reading...
Play button
Play button
Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
171 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
what is a metabolic rate?
|
the energy expelled by an organism
|
|
|
what is a basal metabolic rate?
|
the metabolic rate when an organism is resting
|
|
|
how do you measure metabolic rate?
|
oxygen consumption, carbon dioxide
production, heat production |
|
|
how is oxygen measured?
|
a repro meter, oxygen probe
|
|
|
how is carbon dioxide measured?
|
carbon dioxide probes
|
|
|
how is heat production measured?
|
calorimeters
|
|
|
list going from high to low metabolic rates
|
1 mammal and birds
2 reptiles and amphibians 3 fish |
|
|
organisms with i higher metabolic rate need more of what
|
more efficient oxygen delivered to the cells
|
|
|
what is a complete double circulatory system?
|
2 atria and 2 ventricles
|
|
|
what is an incomplete double circulatory system?
|
2 atria and 1 ventricle
|
|
|
what is a single circulatory system?
|
1 atrium and 1 ventricle
|
|
|
what circulatory system does a bird have
|
complete double circulatory system
|
|
|
what circulatory system does a reptile have
|
incomplete double circulatory system
|
|
|
what circulatory system does a fish have
|
single circulatory system
|
|
|
what circulatory system does a mammal have
|
complete double circulatory system
|
|
|
what circulatory system does an amphibian have
|
incomplete double circulatory system
|
|
|
what are the advantages of a complete double circulatory system?
|
allows for a higher metabolic rate to be maintained, there is no mixing of oxygenated and unoxygenated blood, more efficient oxygen delivery
|
|
|
what is an exsternal abionic factor
|
is a factor that affects the metabolic rate of an organism
|
|
|
external abiotic factor example
|
temperature, salinity and pH
|
|
|
what do conformers internal environment
depend on |
the external environment
|
|
|
how do conformers maintain optimal metabolic rate
|
through behavioural responses
|
|
|
what do behavioural responses do
|
allow conformers to tolerate a change in their environment and maintain optimum metabolic rate
|
|
|
what is a conformers metabolic cost and range of ecological niches?
|
low metabolic cost with a narrow range of ecological niches
|
|
|
what happens to a regulator's internal
enviroment when the external environment changes |
nothing, it stays the same
|
|
|
how do regulator control their internal environment
|
by using their metabolism
|
|
|
what is a regulator ecological niche range?
|
a wide range of ecological niches
|
|
|
what in regulators is required for hemostasis and what does this cause
|
energy is needed for hemostasis this results in a high metabolic cost
|
|
|
what is the hypothalamus?
|
the temperature monitoring center
|
|
|
how is information communicated
|
through electrical impulses
|
|
|
where are the electrical impulses sent
|
through the nerves to the effectorss
|
|
|
what do effectors do
|
return the bodys temperture to normal
|
|
|
what arre the responces for an increase in tempertue
|
sweting, vasodilation of blood vasses and decreased metabolic rate
|
|
|
how does sweting help the body
|
the bodys heat evaprotes the swaet on the skin resulting in the skin cooling
|
|
|
how does vasodilation help the body
|
increased blood flow to the skin, increases heat loss
|
|
|
how does a decresed metabolic rate help the body
|
less heat is producded due to less energy being used
|
|
|
what are the responses to the body getting too cold?
|
shivering, vasoconstriction of blood vessels, hair erector muscles contracting and an increased metabolic rate
|
|
|
how does shivering help the body
|
muscles contract and generate heat
|
|
|
how does vasoconstriction help the body?
|
blood vessels constrain resulting in less heat lost through the skin
|
|
|
how do hair erector muscles help the body
|
traps air under the top of the hairs, this aris slowly heats up
|
|
|
how does an increased metabolic rate help the body?
|
as more energy is used more heat is produced
|
|
|
what is thermoregulation
|
the regulation of temperature
|
|
|
why is thermoregulation important?
|
for maintaining optimum enzyme activity and hgh diffusion rates
|
|
|
why are enzyme activity and high diffusion rates important
|
to maintain your metabolism
|
|
|
what is homeostasis
|
the optimal temperature inside an organism's body
|
|
|
what is negative feedback?
|
if the temperature of something rises negative feedback reduces it
if the temperature of something falls negative feedback rises it again |
|
|
what is an adverse condition
|
a enviroment above the torrlable limits for normal metabolic activity
|
|
|
why is dormancy used
|
what the cost of metabolic activity is too high this saves energy
|
|
|
what happens during dormancy
|
decresed metabolic rate, decresed heart rate, decresed breathing rate and body temperature
|
|
|
what is predictive dormancy
|
dormancy that happens before the adverse conditions
|
|
|
what is consequential dormancy
|
dormancy that happens during adverse conditions
|
|
|
what is dormancy in cold conditions
|
some mammals hibernate, during winter or cold conditions
|
|
|
what is dormancy in hot conditions?
|
activation, allows survival in hot temperatures or droughts
|
|
|
what is daily torpor?
|
daily torpor is a period of inactivity during a day, this occurs in animals with high metabolic rates
|
|
|
what is migration
|
when animals avoid adverse conditions by using energy to move to a more suitable environment
|
|
|
what is migration
|
it is behavural and inate
|
|
|
what is innate
|
instinctual
|
|
|
can migration be learned?
|
yes
|
|
|
what specialist techniques measure migration
|
satellite tracking, leg rings
|
|
|
how can wild strains of microorganisms be improved?
|
mutagens and recombinant DNA technology
|
|
|
what can cause mutagens?
|
UV exposure, radiation and chemicals
|
|
|
what is used in recombinant DNA technology?
|
recombinant plasmids and artificial chromosomes as vectors
|
|
|
what is a vector?
|
a DNA molecule used to transfer foreign genetic information to another cell
|
|
|
what is used as a vector?
|
plasmids and artificial chromosomes
|
|
|
what is the preferred vector?
|
artificial chromosomes
|
|
|
what is good about using artificial chromosomes as vectors?
|
they can insert larger fragments of foreign DNA
|
|
|
what cuts the plasmid and required genes from the chromosome?
|
Restriction endonucleases
|
|
|
what was Restriction endonucleases leave
plasmids and the required gene with? |
sticky ends
|
|
|
what is a sticky end?
|
when the bases are complementary
|
|
|
what is used to seal the gene into the plasmids?
|
ligase
|
|
|
what is in Recombinant plasmids and artificial chromosomes?
|
restriction sites, regulatory sequences, an origin of replication and selectable markers
|
|
|
What's a restriction site?
|
contain target sequences of DNA where specific restriction endonucleases cut
|
|
|
what are Regulatory sequences?
|
control gene expression
|
|
|
What is the origin of replication?
|
allows self–replication of the plasmid / artificial chromosome
|
|
|
what are selectable markers?
|
they protect the microorganism from a selective agent that would normally kill it
|
|
|
why are selectable markers used?
|
so that only the microorganisms that have taken up the vector survive in the presence of the
selective agent |
|
|
what is done as a safety mechanism when
selectable markers are used? |
genes are introduced that prevent the
microorganisms from surviving outside the culture conditons |
|
|
what is used when a bacteria can't produce the protein needed?
|
recombinant yeast cells
|
|
|
what can happen when plant or animal DNA is expressed in bacteria?
|
the polypeptides can fold the wrong way
|
|
|
what are the three stages of cellular respiration?
|
glycolysis, the citric acid cycle and electron
transport chain |
|
|
what is glycolysis?
|
the breakdown of the glucose into pyruvate at the cytoplasm
|
|
|
what is ATP needed for in glycolysis?
|
the phosphorylation of glucose and intermediates
|
|
|
what is the first stage called in glycolysis?
|
the energy investment stage
|
|
|
what does the energy investment stage lead to?
|
the energy payoff stage, the generation of more ATP
|
|
|
what is the net gain of ATP in glycolysis?
|
2 ATP
|
|
|
when an enzyme removes hydrogen ions and electrons?
|
dehydrogenase enzyme
|
|
|
what does the dehydrogenase enzyme do with the hydrogen ions and electrons?
|
it passes them to the coenzyme NAD
|
|
|
what does NAD become when hydrogen is added?
|
NADH
|
|
|
what occurs in aerobic conditions?
|
the Citric Acid Cycle
|
|
|
what happens during the citric acid cycle?
|
pyrivate is broken down into an acetial group
|
|
|
what is removed from the pyruvate when it is broken down?
|
the carbon dioxide is removed
|
|
|
what is added together to form acetal coenzyme A?
|
the acteial group and the coenzyme A
|
|
|
what does the acetyl group from acetyl
coenzyme A combine with? |
oxaloacetate
|
|
|
what do the acetyl and oxalate form?
|
citrate.
|
|
|
what happens to the citrate?
|
it is turned back into oxalate
|
|
|
how does citrate become oxalate?
|
through enzyme–controlled reactions
|
|
|
what does citrate becoming oxalate produce?
|
ATP and carbon dioxide
|
|
|
where does the citric acid cycle occur?
|
the matrix of the mitochondria
|
|
|
when are dehydrogenase enzymes used?
|
glycolysis and the citric acid cycle
|
|
|
what is the electron transport chain?
|
a series of carrier proteins attached to the inner mitochondrial membrane
|
|
|
what is passed on from NADH?
|
hydrogen ions and electrons
|
|
|
what is the first step of ATP synthesis?
|
electrons are passed along the electron transport chain
|
|
|
what does the first step of ATP synthesis release?
|
energy
|
|
|
what is the second step of ATP synthesis?
|
the energy from the first stage allows for
hydrogen ions to be pumped across the inner mitocondiral membrain |
|
|
what is the third step of ATP synthesis?
|
the hydrogen ions flow back through the
membrane protein ATP synthase |
|
|
what does the hydrogen flowing back through the membrane produce?
|
ATP
|
|
|
what is the fourth stage of ATP synthesis?
|
hydrogen ions and electrons combine with water to form oxygen
|
|
|
what is ATP used for?
|
to transfer energy to cellular processes that need energy
|
|
|
what causses fermentation to occur?
|
the absence of oxygen
|
|
|
where does fermentation take place?
|
the cytoplasm
|
|
|
fermentation in animal cells?
|
pyruvate is converted to lactate
|
|
|
is pyruvate being converted to lactate reversible?
|
yes
|
|
|
fermentation in plants and yeast?
|
ethanol and CO2 are produced
|
|
|
is fermetation in plants and yeast reverable?
|
no
|
|
|
what produces the most ATP
|
arobic resperation
|
|
|
what produces less ATP
|
fermentaion
|
|
|
what are the different types of microorganisms?
|
archaea, bacteria and some eukaryotes
|
|
|
what do microorganisms use substrates from?
|
metabolism and producing a range of products from their metabolic pathways
|
|
|
why are microorganisms used?
|
they are adaptive, easy to cultivate and they are fast to grow
|
|
|
what is biosynthesis needed to produce?
|
complex molecules
|
|
|
examples of complex molecules?
|
amino acids, vitamins and fatty acids
|
|
|
what is required when culturing a microorganism?
|
require raw materials for biosynthesis as well as an energy source
|
|
|
where is an energy source from?
|
chemical sources or from light in photosynthetic microorganisms
|
|
|
why are sterile conditions needed on fermenters?
|
it reduces commission with the desired
micro organism and reduce the risk of spoilage |
|
|
what are cultural conditions? (examples)
|
sterility, control of temperatures, oxygen levels and pH
|
|
|
what is the first stage of the growth curve?
|
the lag phase
|
|
|
what is the second stage of the growth curve?
|
the log / exponential phase
|
|
|
what is the third phase of the growth curve?
|
stationary phase
|
|
|
what is the last stage of the growth curve?
|
death phase
|
|
|
what is the lag stage?
|
where enzymes are induced to metabolise substrates
|
|
|
what is the log stage?
|
the most rapid growth of micro–organisms due to plentiful nutrients
|
|
|
what is the stationary phase?
|
occurs due to the nutrients in the culture media becoming depleted and the production of toxic metabolites
|
|
|
what is the death phase?
|
due to the toxic accumulation of metabolites or the lack of nutrients in the culture
|
|
|
what is a viable cell count?
|
the count of only the living microorganisms
|
|
|
what is the total cell count?
|
the count of all the microorganisms dead and alive
|
|
|
what micro organism count shows the death phase?
|
the viable cell count
|
|
|
what is the scale of the y–axis on a logarithmic graph?
|
in powers of 10
|
|
|
what are metabolic pathways?
|
controlled pathways of enzyme–catalysts in the cell
|
|
|
what are the three kinds of steps in metabolic pathways?
|
reversible steps, irreversible steps and
alternative routes |
|
|
what do anabolic reactions do?
|
Build up large molecules from small
molecules requires energy |
|
|
what do catabolic reactions do?
|
break down larger molecules into smaller molecules
releases energy |
|
|
what makes up the cell membrane? (nat 5)
|
phospholipids and proteins
|
|
|
what makes up the cell membrane? (higher)
|
phospholipids, proteins, pores, pumps and enzymes
|
|
|
what is a concertation gradient?
|
the different concentrations of molecules on the outside and inside of a cell
|
|
|
what is passive transport?
|
when molecules move from a high to a
low concentration, down the concentration gradient |
|
|
what is active transport?
|
when molecules move from a low concentration to a high concentration, up the concentration gradient
|
|
|
what type of transport is osmosis?
|
passive transport
|
|
|
what type of transport is diffusion?
|
passive
|
|
|
what is diffusion?
|
the movement of molecules down a
concentration gradient from a higher to a lower concentration |
|
|
what is osmosis?
|
the movement of water molecules from a higher water concentration to a lower water
concentration through a selectively permeable membrane |
|
|
what happens to animal cells in osmosis?
|
they can burst or shrink
|
|
|
what happens to plant cells in osmosis?
|
turgid (gain water) or plasmolysed (lose water)
|
|
|
what are metabolic pathways controlled by?
|
presence or absence of particular enzymes
|
|
|
what is induced fit?
|
when the active site of the enzyme changes to better fit the enzyme's active site
|
|
|
why do enzymes lower the activation energy?
|
to allow reactions to occur
|
|
|
what has a high affinity for the active site?
|
the substrate
|
|
|
what has a low affinity for the active site?
|
the product
|
|
|
what does a high affinity allow?
|
the substrate and the enzyme to bond
|
|
|
what does a low affinity allow?
|
the product to leave the enzyme
|
|
|
what happens when substrate concentration increases?
|
the rate of reaction increases
|
|
|
why does substrate concentration increase the rate of reaction?
|
as more active sites are being used
|
|
|
What happens when all of the active sites are occupied?
|
the rate of reaction remains constant
|
|
|
can metabolic reactions be reversed?
|
some but not all
|
|
|
what happens when there is a high substrate concentration and a low product concentration?
|
more products are made from the substrates
|
|
|
what happens when there is a low substrate concentration and a high product concentration?
|
the reaction reverses and more substrates are made from the product
|
|
|
in what way can metabolic pathways be controlled?
|
through competitive, non–competitive and
feedback inhibition |
|
|
what happens during competative inhibition
|
competitive inhibitors bind to the active site blocking the substrate from the enzyme
|
|
|
how can competitive inhibition be reversed?
|
by increasing substrate concentration
|
|
|
what do non–competitive inhibitors do?
|
bind away for the active site and change its shape preventing the substrate from binding
|
|
|
how can non–competitive inhibition be reversed?
|
it cannot be reversed
|
|
|
what causes feedback inhibition?
|
when the product level reaches a critical concentration
|
|
|
what happens when the product reaches a critical concentration? (feedback inhibition)
|
the product inhibits an earlier enzyme
preventing more from being made |
