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245 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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PSYCH CHP 1
1. PSYCHOLOGY 2. MIND 3. BEHAVIOUR |
1. Scientific study of mind/behaviour 2. Private, inner experience of thoughts/memories/feelings in ever flowing stream of consciousness 3. Refers to observable actions of humans and non humans |
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PSYCH CHP 1
FUNCTIONAL MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING (fMRI) |
Technique that allows scientist to scan a brain to determine which parts are active when a person reads a word, sees a face, learns a new skill, etc |
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PSYCH CHP 1
How does the mind allow us to function effectively in the world? |
- PERCEPTION = Allows us to recognize our families, see predators avoid avoid stumbling into traffic - LANGUAGE = Allows us to organize our thoughts and communicate them to others which enables us to form social groups and cooperate - MEMORY = Allows us to avoid solving the same problems every time encounter them and to keep in mind what we're doing and why - Emotions allow us to react quickly to events that have life/death significance |
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PSYCH CHP 1
Why does the mind occasionally function so ineffectively in the world? |
When we are not actively focused on what we are saying/ding, habits may be triggered inappropriately |
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PSYCH CHP 1
What're the camps of psychology? |
1. STRUCTURALISTS: Tried to analyze the mind by breaking it down to it's basic components 2. FUNCTIONALISTS: Focused on how mental abilities allow people to adapt their environment |
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PSYCH CHP 1
1. NATIVISM 2. PHILOSOPHICAL EMPIRICISM
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1. (Plato) The philosophical view that certain kinds of knowledge are innate/inborn 2. (Aristotle) The view that all knowledge is acquired through experience
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PSYCH CHP 1
1.RENE DESCARTES 2. THOMAS HOBBES |
1. Argued that the mind/body are fundamentally different things - BODY: Material substance - MIND: Immaterial/spiritual substance 2. Said mind/body are different, rather, the mind is what the brain does (MONOISM) |
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PSYCH CHP 1
DR FRANZ JOSEPH GALL |
Thought brains/minds were linked by size rather than glands, and the mental ability increases with larger brain size/dicreases with damage to the brain
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PSYCH CHP 1
DR. PAUL BROCA |
Had crucial insight that damage to a specific part of the brain impaired a specific mental function, demonstrating brain/mind are closely linked; mind is grounded to material substance, brain |
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PSYCH CHP 1
Applying physiology to psychology |
- PHYSIOLOGY: Study of biological processes especially in the human body |
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PSYCH CHP 1
WUNDT |
Believed that scientific psychology should focus on analyzing CONSCIOUSNESS: a persons subjective experience of the world and the mind; encompasses broad range of subjective experiences - Used STRUCTURALISM: the analysis of basic elements that constitute the mind - Tried to analyze stream of consciousness in a systematic way using INTROSPECTION: subjective observation of ones experience |
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PSYCH CHP 1
1. EDWARD TITCHENER 2. WILLIAM JAMES 3. DARWSIN 4. G. STANLEY HALL |
1. Focused on identifying the basic elements themselves 2. Developed an approach called FUNCTIONALISM: study of the purpose mental processes serve in enabling people to adapt to their environment 3. Proposed principle of NATURAL SELECTION: features of an organism that help it survive/reproduce are more likely than other features to be passed on in subsequent generations 4. Believed that, as children develop, they pass through stages that repeat the evolutionary history of the human race |
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PSYCH CHP 1
CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY 1. DR. JEAN CHARCOT AND PIERRE JANET 2. FREUD |
1. Reported striking observations in interviews with patients of HYSTERIA: temporary loss of cognitive functions 2. Said the UNCONSCIOUS is a part of the mind that operates outside the conscious awareness but influences conscious thoughts, feelings and actions |
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PSYCH CHP 1
CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY 1. PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY 2. PSYCHOANALYSIS 3. ABRAHAM MASLOW/CARL ROGERS |
1. Approach that emphasizes the importance of unconscious mental processes by shaping feelings/thoughts and behaviours (uncover early experiences to illuminate a persons unconscious anxieties, conflicts, desires) 2. Focus on bringing unconscious material into conscious awareness to better understand psych disorders 3. Pioneered HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY: approach to psychology understanding human nature that emphasizes potential f human beings (view people as free agents who have inherent need to develop/grow) |
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PSYCH CHP 1
BEHAVOURISM (SKINNER) |
- BEHAVIOURISM: Advocates that psychologist restrict themselves to the scientific study of objectively observable behaviour - RESPONSE: An action/physiological change elicited by a stimulus |
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PSYCHO CHP 1
BEHAVIOURISM (IVAN PAVLOV/JOHN B. WATSON) |
Studied association between stimulus/response and emphasized the importance of the environment in shaping behaviour |
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PSYCH CHP 1
MAX WERTHEIMER |
Focused on the study of ILLUSIONS: errors of perception, memory or judgment in which subjective experience which subjective experience differs from objective reality |
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PSYCH CHP 1
1. KURT LEWIN 2. COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 3. BEHAVIOURAL NEUROSCIENCE |
1. Used a special kind of mathematics called TOPOLOGY to model the persons subjective exp. 2. The scientific study of mental processes, including perception/thought/memory/reasoning 3. Approach to psychology that links psychological processes to activities in the nervous system and other bodily processes |
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PSYCH CHP 1
1. COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE 2. EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY 3. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY |
1. Field of study that attempts to understand the links between cognitive/brain processes 2. Explains mind/behaviour in terms of adaptive value of abilities that are presented over time by natural selection 3. Study of causes/consequences of sociality; culture refers to the values/traditions/beliefs shared by a demographic |
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PSYCH CHP 1
CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY |
Study of how cultures reflect/shape the psychological processes of their members - RELATIVISM: Holds that psychological phenomena are likely to vary considerably across cultures and should be viewed only in the context of specific culture |
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PSYCH CHP 2
1. EMPIRCISIM 2. SCIENTIFIC METHOD 3. THEORY 4. RULE OF PARSIMONY |
1. The belief that accurate knowledge can be acquired via observation 2. Procedure for finding truth by using empirical evidence 3. Hypothetical explanation of a natural phenomenon 4. The simplest theory that explains all the evidence is the best one (used when developing a theory) |
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PSYCH CHP 2
1. HYPOTHESIS 2. Theory confidence |
1. Falsifiable prediction made by a theory 2. When evidence is consistent with a theory, it increases its confidence in it but never makes us completely certain |
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PSYCH CHP 2
EMPIRICAL METHOD |
Set of rules/techniques for observation; psychologists' empirical method is subject to 3 factors, (i) complexity, (ii) variability and (iii) reactivity - The fact that human beings are complex, variable and reactive presents a major challenge to the scientific study of their behaviour |
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PSYCH CHP 2
How to meet the challenges of empirical method |
1. METHOD OF OBSERVATION: Allows psychologist to determine what people do 2. METHOD IF EXPLANATION: Allow psychologist to determine why people do it |
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PSYCH CHP 2
1. Measurements of empirical method 2. OPERATIONAL DEFINITION 3. INSTRUMENT |
1. We must always DEFINE and DETECT 2. Description of a property in in concrete, measurable terms 3. Measures operational definition, anything that ca detect the condition to which an operational definition refers |
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PSYCH CHP 2
Concepts of defining/detecting |
1. Most important feature of an operational definition is VALIDITY, the goodness with which a concrete event defines a property 2. A good instrument has RELIABILITY, which is the tendency for an instrument to produce the same measurement whenever it is used to measure the same thing 3. A good instrument has POWER, which is an instruments ability to detect small magnitudes of the property |
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PSYCH CHP 2
1. DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS 2. NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION 3. DOUBLE-BLIND OBSERVATION |
1. Factor to consider when measuring behaviour; are aspects of an observational setting that cause people to behave as they think someone expects (poses difficulty) 2. Techniques for gathering scientific info by unobtrusively observing people in their natural environments (not always viable bcuz things psychologist want to observe don't occur naturally or they can only be gathered by direct interaction) 3. Observation whose true purpose is hidden from both the observer/observee |
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PSYCH CHP 2
DESCRIPTION 1. FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION 2. NORMAL DISTIBUTION |
1. Graphic representation of measurements arranged by the number of times each measurement was made 2. (Bell curve) Mathematically defined distribution in which the frequency of measurements is highest in the MIDDLE and decreases symmetrically |
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PSYCH CHP 2
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS |
Brief summary statements that capture the essential information from frequency distribution |
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PSYCH CHP 2
(Descriptive statistics) CENTRAL TENDENCY |
Frequency distribution statements about the value of measurements that tend t the near center/midpoint of such 1. MODE: Value of the most frequently observed measurement 2. MEAN: Average of all measurements 3. MEDIAN: Value that is in the middle |
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PSYCH CHP 2
(Descriptive statistics) |
Disparity among values in the frequency distribution; simplest description of variability 1. RANGE: Difference between largest and smallest value 2. STANDARD DEVIATION: On average, how far the measurements are from the center of distribution |
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PSYCH CHP 2
Patterns of variation (correlations) |
- CORRELATION: When variations are synchronized in their values - POSITIVE CORRELATION: When 2 variables have a "more-is-more" or "less-is-less" relation - NEGATIVE CORRELATION: When 2 variables have a "less-is-more" or "more-is-less" relation - CORRELATION COEFFICIENT: Mathematical measure of both the direction/strength of correlation (if everytime the value of one variables changes by a fixed amount, the value of another also changes by a fixed amount --proportionally) - NATURAL CORRELATIONS: Correlations observed in the world around us - THIRD VARIABLE CORRELATION: 2 variables are correlated only bcuz each is causally related to a 3rd variable |
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PSYCH CHP 2
1. MATCHED SAMPLES TECHNIQUE 2. MATCHES PAIRS TECHNIQUE 3. THIRD VARIABLE PROBLEM |
1. Technique whereby the participants in 2 groups are identical in terms of a 3rd variable 2. Technique whereby each participants is identical to another participant in terms of 3rd variable 3. Relationship between 2 variables cannot be inferred from the naturally occurring correlation between them bcuz f the possibility of a 3rd variable correlation |
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PSYCH CHP 2
EXPERIMENT (and components) |
- Technique for establishing the causal relationship between variables; 2 key features 2. RANDOM ASSIGNMENT: Procedure that lets chance assign people to certain aspects of an experiment (study groups) |
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PSYCH CHP 2
Steps of an experiment |
1. Perform manipulation - INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: Variable being manipulated (independent from what participants says/does) - Create 2 groups to manipulate; (i) EXPERIMENTAL GROUP is exposed to the manipulation and (ii) CONTROL GROUP is not 2. Having manipulated one variable, measure another variable (element/characteristic) - DEPENDENT VARIABLE: Variable that is measured, dependent on what participant says/does 3. Look to see if our manipulation of the independent variable produced a change in the dependent variable |
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PSYCH CHP 2
1. SELF-SELECTION 2. STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE 3.. INFERENTIAL STATISTICS |
1. Problem that occurs when anything about a person determines if he/she will be included in the experimental or control group 2. When there is a less than 5% chance that a result would happen if a random assignment had failed 3. Conclusions/inferences scientist can draw from observed differences between experimental/control groups |
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PSYCH CHP 2 1. INTERNAL VALIDITY 2. EXTERNAL VALIDITY 3. POPULATIONS 4. SAMPLES 5. RANDOM SAMPLING |
1. An attribution of an experiment that allows it to establish causal relationship; everything inside experiment is working exactly in an order that it - Define experiments as they are defined in the real world 2. An attribute of an experiment in which variables have been defined in a normal/realistic way (most psych experiments are externally invalid) 3. Complete collection of people 4. Partial collection of people drawn from population 5. Technique for choosing participants that ensures that every member of a population has an equal chance of being included in a sample |
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PSYCH CHP 2
Critical thinking about evidence |
Two ancient, all too human tendencies, to see what we expect to see and ignore what we can't see, are the enemies of critical thinking 1) Doubt what you do see 2) Consider what you don't see |
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PSYCH CHP 2
Ethics of Psychology (important rules) |
1. Informed consent: Written agreement to participate in a study made by an adult who has been informed of all the risks that participation may entail 2. Freedom from coercion: Psychologists may not coerce participation (neither from monetary, physical or psychological 3. Protection from harm: Every possible precaution to protect research participants from physical/psychological harm must be taken 4. Risk-benefit analysis: Demonstrate that risks are outweighed by social benefits of new knowledge that may be gained from study 5. Deception: Only use deception if justified by the scientific/educational or applied value and when no alternative procedures are feasible 6. Debriefing: Must provide a verbal description of the true nature of the study 7. Confidentiality: Keep private/personal information obtained during study confidential |
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PSYCH CHP 3
NEURONS |
Cells in the nervous system that communicate with one another to perform information processing tasks - Approx. 100 billion nerve cells in your brain |
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PSYCH CHP 3
Components of Neurons |
- CELL BODY: Larger component of the neuron that coordinates information processing tasks/keeps cell alive (contains nucleus which houses chromosomes, which contain DNA) - 2 types of specialized extensions of cell membrane: (1) DENDRITES: receive info from neurons and relay it to body and (2) AXON: carries info to other neurons/muscles/glands - Covered by MYELIN SHEATH: Insulating layers of fatty material, composed of GLIAL CELLS: support cells found in nervous system, digest dead neurons, provide physical/nutritional support, help axon carry info efficiently - SYNAPSE: Junction between axon one of neuron and dendrites/cell body of another; where transmission of info take place - TERMINAL BUTTONS: Knob like structure that branch from axon - NEUROTRANSMITTERS: Chemicals that transmit info across synapse - RECEPTORS: Part of the cell membrane that receive neurotransmiters and either initiate/prevent a new electrical signal |
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PSYCH CHP 3
Major types of neurons |
1. SENSORY NEURONS: Receive info from external world and convey this into the brain via spinal cord 2. MOTOR NEURONS: Carry signals from the spinal cord to the muscles to produce movement 3. INTERNEURONS: Majority of neurons, connect sensory, motor and other neurons |
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PSYCH CHP 3
Neurons specialized by location |
1. PURKINJE CELLS: Interneuron that carries info from cerebellum to the rest of the brain+spinal cord 2. PYRAMIDAL CELLS: Found in cerebral cortex, have triangular cell body and a single, long dendrite among many small dendrites 3. BIPOLAR CELLS: Type of sensory neuron found in the retinas of the eye, have a single axon/dendrite |
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PSYCH CHP 3
ELECTROCHEMICAL ACTION OF NEURONS; Action potential |
- Conduction+transmission; communication of info within/between neurons - ACTION POTENTIAL: an electrical signal that is conducted along the length of neurons axon to a synapse 1. Action potential occurs only when the electric shock reaches a certain level/threshold 2. AP is an all/nothing response 3. After AP reaches max, membrane channels return to their original state and K+ flows out until axon reaches resting potential 4. During this period, when ions are imbalanced, neurons can't initiate another AP and is said to be in REFACTORY PERIOD; time following an AP during which AP can't be initiated 5. Myelin sheath facilities the conduction of the AP, it clumps around the axon with little break points called NODES OF RANVIER 6. Charge jumps from one node to another in process called SALTATORY CONDUCTION and it helps speed flow of info down axon |
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PSYCH CHP 3
CONDUCTING info within a neuron |
- CONDUCTION: Movement of an electrical signal within neurons from the dendrites to the cell body then throughout the axon - RESTING POTENTIAL: Difference in electric charge between the inside/outside of a neurons cell membrane - In resting state, channels that allow K+ molecules to flow freely across cell membrane are open, while Na+ channels are closed |
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PSYCH CHP 3
TRANSMISSION between neurons |
- TRANSMISSION: Movement of an electrical signals from one neuron to another over the synapse 1. Action potential travels down axon and 2. stimulates release of neurotransmiters from vesicles 3. The neurotransmitters are released into the synapse where they go to bind w/ receptors of a dendrite of a post synptic neuron, initiating a new AP.. The neurotransmitter is cleared out of synapse by.. 5. binding to autoreceptors on the sensory neuron |
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PSYCH CHP 3
Types/functions of neurotransmitters |
1. ACETYCHOLINE (ACh): Neurotransmitter involved in involuntary motor control (found in neurons of brain/synapses where axons connect to muscles/body organs) 2. DOPAMINE: Regulates motor behaviour, motivation, pleasure and emotional arousal 3. GLUAMATE: Excitatory, enhances transmission of info between neurons 3a. GABA: Inhibitory, tends to stop firing neurons 4. NOREPINEPHRINE: involved in states of vigilance, or a heightened awareness of dangers 5. SEROTONIN: Involved in regulation of sleep, wakefulness/eat/agressive behaviour 6. ENDORPHINS: Act within the pain pathway and emotion centers of the brain, e.g. morphine |
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PSYCH CHP 3
Mimicking neurotransmitters |
- AGONISTS: Drugs that INCREASE the action of neurotransmitter (amphetamine) - ANTAGONISTS: Drugs that BLOCK function of a neurotransmitter (prozac) |
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PSYCH CHP 3
1. NERVOUS SYSTEM 2. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM |
1. Interacting network of neurons that conveys electrochemical information throughout the body; divided into (i) Cental nervous system [CNS] and (ii) Peripheral nervous system [PNS] 2. Composed of brain and spinal cord; receives sensory info from external world, processes/coordinates info, sends commands to skeletal muscular systems for action - Connections between the sensory inputs/motor neurons in the spinal cord mediate SPINAL REFLEXES: simple pathways in the nervous system that rapidly generate muscle contractions |
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PSYCH CHP 3
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM |
Connects the central nervous system to the bodys organs/muscles; composed of 2 subdivisons 1. SOMATIC NS (SNS): Set of nerves that conveys info between voluntary muscles and central nervous system 2. AUTONOMIC NS (ANS): Set of nerves that carries involuntary/automatic commands that control blood vessels, body organs, glands; divided in 2 (b) PARASYMPATHETIC NS: Helps body return to normal resting state; reverse of sympathetic |
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PSYCH CHP 3
(Structure of brain) HINDBRAIN |
An area of the brain that coordinates info coming into and out of the spinal cord - Controls basic functions of life: respiration, alertness, motor skills (iii) CEREBELLUM: Large structure of hindbrain that controls fine motor skills (iv) PONS: Structure that relays info from cerebellum to the rest of the brain |
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PSYCH CHP 3
(Structure of the brain) MIDBRAIN |
On top of the hindbrain, contains 2 structures 1. TECTUM: Orients an organism in the environment, receives stimulus input from eyes, ears, skin and moves the organism in a coordinated way towards stimulus 2. TEGMENTUM: Involved in movement/arousal |
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PSYCH CHP 3
(Structure of brain) 1. FOREBRAIN 2. CEREBRAL CORTEX |
1. Highest level of the brain, controls complex cognitive, emotional, sensory and motor functions; divided into cerebral cortex and subcortical structures 2. Outermost layer of brain, visible to naked eye; (I) GYRI: Smooth surface/raised part of cortex, (ii) SULCI: indentations/fissures - Divided into 2 hemispheres - LEFT/RIGHT hemisphere; CONTROLATERAL CONTROL: each hemisphere controls the functions of the opposite body - COMMISSURES: Bundles of axons that connect the cerebral hemispheres, make communication possible between parallel ares of the cortex in each half (larest commisssure = corpus calcum) |
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PSYCH CHP 3
(Structure of brain) |
Each hemisphere in the cerebral cortex is divided into 4 areas called LOBES 1. OCCIPITAL LOBE: At back of cerebral cortex, processes visual info 2. PARIETAL LOBE: At front of occiptal lobe, processes info about touch; contains SOMATOSENSORY CORTEX: strip of brain tissue running from top to bottom and sides of brain; represents skin areas on contralteral surface - in front of somatosensory, in frontol lobe = MOTOR CORTEX: initiates voluntary movements and sends messages to basal ganglia, cerebellum and spinal cord 3. TEMPORAL LOBE: Lower side of hemisphere, processes auditory info (e.g. language) 4. FRONTAL LOBE: Sites behind forehead, has specialized area for movement, abstract thinking, planning, memory and judgement |
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PSYCH CHP 3
(Structure of brain - forebrain) Organization within specific lobes in cerebral cortex hemispheres |
- Handles fine details of info - ASSOCIATION AREAS: Composition of neurons that help provide sense/meaning to info registered in the cortex; help stitch together threads of info in various parts of the cortex to produce a meaningful understanding of whats being registered - MIRROR NEURONS: Active when an animal performs a behaviour/observes animals performing behaviours (found in frontal/parietal lobe) |
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PSYCH CHP 3
(Structure of brain - forebrain) SUBCORTICAL STRUCTURES |
Area of the forebrain housed under the cerebral cortex, near center of brain; nestled deep; has... 1. THALAMUS: Relays/filters info from the senses and transmits info to cerebral cortex 2.. HYPOTHALAMUS: Located below thalamus, regulates body temp, hunger, thurst, sexual behaviour 3. PITUITARY GLAND: Master gland of the bodys hromone-producing system, which releases hormones that direct the functions of other glands in the body, below hypothalamus 4. LIMBIC SYSTEM: Where cerebral cortex meets subcortical structures, group of forebrain structures (including hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygalda), that involve motivation, emotion, learning/memory |
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PSYCH CHP 3
(Structure of brain - forebrain) Components of limbic system |
- HIPPOCAMPUS: Critical for making new memories and integrating them into network of knowledge so that they can be stored in cerebral cortex -AMYGDALA: Located @ tip of each horn of the hippocampus, plays central role in many emotional processes, e.g. emotional memories - BASAL GANGLIA: Set of subcortical structures that directs intentional movements; receive input from cerebral crotex, sends output to motor centers in brain stem; has STRIATUM: involved in control of posture/movement |
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PSYCH CHP 3
1. BRAIN PLASTICITY 2.ONTOGENY 3. PHYLOGENT |
1. The ability of sensory cortices to adapt to changes in sensory inputs; functions may be capable of being reassigned to other areas of the brain to accomodate changing input from the environment; sensory inputs "compete" for representation 2. How brain develops within a given individual 3. How brain develops in a species |
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PSYCH CHP 3
GENES |
Major unit of hereditary transmission, recentl defined as sections of a strand of DNA that code for protein models that affect traits - Organized into large threads called CHROMOSOMES: stands of DNA wound around each other in dbl-helix; produces protein molecules via action of mRNA molecule - DEGREE OF RELATEDNESS: Probability of sharing genes; MONOZYGOTIC TWINS: AKA identical, develop from splitting of single fertalized egg, share 100% the same genes; DIZYGOTIC TWINS: AKA fraternal, develop from 2 fertalized egg, share 50% genes |
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PSYCH CHP 3
EPIGENETICS |
Environmental influences that determine whether or not genes are expressed, or degree to which they are w/o altering basic DNA sequences that constitute genes themselves - EPIGENETIC MARKERS: Chemical modifications to DNA that can turn genes on/off - DNA METHYLATION: Addin gmethyl group to DNA, switches methylated gene off (still there, just not expressed) - HISTONE MODIFICATION: Involves adding chemical modification to proteins called histones that pack DNA; cain either switch genes on/off |
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PSYCH CHP 3
ENVIRONMENT (Individual development) |
- HERITABILITY: Measure of the variability of behavioural traits among individuals that can be accounted for by genetic factors (i) Calculated as proportion, numerical index ranges from 0.0-1.0 (ii) 0 = genes don't contribute to individual differences in behavioural trait (iii) 1 = only reason for individual differences |
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PSYCH CHP 3
1. BROCAS AREA 2. WERNICKS AREA 3. PHENIAS GAGE |
1. Broca described patient who lost capacity to produce spoken language but not understand; due to damage in small area of left frontal lobe 2. Carl Wernicke described patient with an impairment in language comprehension but not ability to produce speech; due to damage in upper-left temporal lobe 3. Hypothesized frontal lobe is involved in emotion regulation, planning and making decisions
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PSYCH CHP 3
SPLIT BRAIN (Sperry) |
Procedure to sever corpus callosum to alleviate severity of seizure; seizure will start in right hemisphere but won't go to left. |
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PSYCH CHP 3
Studying the brains electrical activity |
- ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPH (EEG): Device used to record electrical activity in the brain - Neurons in the primary visual cortex represent particular features of visual stimuli such as contrast/shape and color; these neurons in the visual cortex are known as FEATURE DETECTORS bcuz they selectively respond to certain aspects of visual imaging |
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PSYCH CHP 3
STRUCTURAL BRAIN IMAGING |
Provides info about basic structure of brain that allows clinicians and researches to see abnormalities in brain structure - COMPUTERIZED AXIAL TOMOGRAPHY (CT) SCAN: Takes a series of x-ray photos from different angles; higher density skull looks white on CT, low density = dark ; used to locate lesions/tumors which appear darker - MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING (MRI): Uses strong magnetic field to line up the nuclei of specific molecules in brain tissue - DIFFUSION TENSUR IMAGING (PTI): Type of MRI that is used to visualize white matter pathways, which are fiber bundells that connect both nearby/distant brain regions to one another |
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PSYCH CHP 3
FUNCTIONAL BRAIN IMAGING |
Provides info about activity of brain when people perform various kinds of cognitive/motor tasks - POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY (PET): Harmless raioactive substance injected into a persons blood stream; brain is scanned by radiation detectors as person performs task; higher amount of radioactivity in high energy areas - FUNCTIONAL MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING (fMRI): Technique that detects difference between oxygenated hemoglobin and deoxygenated hemoglobin when exposed to magnetic impulses; when neurons demand more energy/blood, oxygenated hemoglobin concentrates around active areas > Helps identigy DEFAULT NETWORK: Group of interconnected regions in frontal/temporal/parietal lobes involved in internally focused cognitive activities |
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PSYCH CHP 3
TRANSCRANIAL MAGNETIC STIMULATION |
Way to mimic brain damage with benign technique called TRANSCRANIAL MAGNETIC STIMULATION (TMS) - Delivers magnetic impulse through skull and deactivates neurons in cerebral cortex for short period of time - Can direct TMS to particular brain regions and then measure temporaary change in way person sees/thinks/remembers/speaks+feels |
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PSYCH CHP 4
1. SENSORY BRANDING 2. SENSATION 3. PERCEPTION |
1. Form of advertising that exploits all senses to promote a product/brand 2. Simple stimulation of sense organ, basic registration of light/sound/pressure/odor/taste as parts of your body interact with the physical world 3. The organization, identification, interpretation of a sensation in order to form a mental representation |
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PSYCH CHP 4
TRANSDUCTION |
When many sensors in the body convert physical signals from the environment into encoded neural signals to the CNS 1. VISION: Light reflected from surfaces, provides eyes with info about shape, color and positions of objects 2/ AUDITION: Vibrtions cause changes in pressure that move through space to the listeners ear 3. TOUCH: Pressure of a surface against skin signals its shape, texture and temperature 4. TASTE/SMELL: Molecules dispersed in the air or dissolved in saliva reveal the identity of substances that we may/may not want to eat
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PSYCH CHP 4
GUSTAV FECHNER |
Developed a new approach to measuring sensation/perception called PSYCHOPHYSICS: Methods that measure the strength of a stimulus and the observers sensitivity to that stimulus |
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PSYCH CHP 4
Measuring thresholds |
- Humans are betteer at detecting changes in stimulation than simple onset/offset of stimulation - ABSOLUTE THRESHOLDS: Minimal intensity needed to just barely detect a stimulus n 50% of trials - JUST NOTICEABLE DIFFERENCE (JND): Minimal change in a stimulus that can just barely be detected - WEBER'S LAW: The JND of a stimulus is a constant proportion despite variations in intensity |
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PSYCH CHP 4
SIGNAL DEECTION THEORYT |
The response to a stimulus depends both on a persons sensitivity to the stimulus in the presence of noise and on a persons decision criterion |
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PSYCH CHP 4
SENSORY ADAPTATIONS |
Sensitivity to prolonged stimulation tends to decline over time as an organism adapts to current conditions |
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PSYCH CHP 4
APPROXIMATE SENSORY THRESHOLDS
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1. Vision = candle flame 30 miles away on clear, dark night 2. Hearing = a clocks tick 20 ft away while it's all quiet 3. Touch = Fly's wings falling on the cheek 1 cm away 4. Smell = Single drop of perfume diffused through an area equivalent to volume of 6 rooms 5. Taste = Teaspon of sugar dissolved in 2 gallons of ater |
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PSYCH CHP 4
VISUAL ACTIVITY |
The ability to see the fine detil; it is the smallest line of letters that a typical person can read from a distance of 20 ft. - Visual system has evolved to transduce visual energy in the world into neural signals in the brain; corresponds to wave lengths of lght energy |
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PSYCH CHP 4
Sensing Light |
- Visible light is the portion of electromagnetic spectrum that we can see - 3 Properties of light waves 1) LENGTH of waves determine it's HUE r what humans see as color 2) AMPLITUDE/INTENSITY of a light wave is how high the peaks are; this determines what we percieve as BRIGHTNESS of light 3) PURITY is the # of distinct wave lengths that make up the light purity and responds to SATURATION or richness of color |
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PSYCH CHP 4
The human eye |
- Light that reaches the eye passes first through a clear, smooth outer tissue called the CORNEA, which bends the light wave and sends it through the PUPIL, a hole in the colored part of the eye - IRIS: a coloured, translucent, doughnut shaped muscle that controls the size of the pupil - LENS: Behind the iris, muscle that controls eye shape and bends light and focuses on to the... - RETINA: Light sensitive tissue lining the back of the eyeball
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PSYCH CHP 4
1. ACCOMODATION 2. MYOPIA 3. HYPEROPIA |
1. The process by which the eye maintains a clear image on the retina 2. AKA nearsightedness, when the eyeball is too long, images are focused in front of the retina, leading to nearsightedness 3. AKA farsightedness, when the eyeball is too short, images are focused behind the retina |
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PSYCH CHP 4
1. RETINA 2. CONES |
1. The retina is the interface between the world of light outside the body and the world of vision inside the central nervous system; it has two types of PHOTORECEPTOR CELLS that tranduce light into neural impulses: cones/rods 2. CONES: Detect color, operate under normal daylight conditions and allow us to focus on fine detail (6 million in retina, densely placed in fovea) - distribution of cones directly affects visual acuity and explains why objects off to the side aren'tclear |
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PSYCH CHP 4
RODS |
Become active under low light conditins for night vision (more sensitive than cones) - 20 million rods around retinas except in the center (FOVEA: area of retina where vision is clearest and there are no rods)
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PSYCH CHP 4
Different photoreceptor cells |
Photorecepter cells form the inner most layer (rods/cones); they're beneath a layer of transparent neurons... 1. BIPOLAR CELLS: Collect neural signals from rods/cones and transmit them to the outer most layer of the retina 2. RETINAL GANGLION CELLS (RGC): organize the signals and send them to the brain (1.5 RGC/eye) 3. OPTIC NERVE: Bundled RGC's, leaves the eye through a hole in the retina |
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PSYCH CHP 4
Perceiving color |
- VISIBLE SPECTRUM: Rainbow of hues and accompanying wavelengths - Cones come in 3 types, especially sensitive to 1) Long wavelength, red light 2) Medium wavelength, green light 3) Short wavelength, blue light |
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PSYCH CHP 4
Visual discrepancies |
1. COLOR DEFICIENCY: Genetic disorder in which one of the cone types is missing -- and, in some cases, two or all (sex linked, mostly men) 2. COLOR AFTERIMAGE: Fatigued cones responding to color create a distorted visual perception 3. COLOR OPPONENT SYSTEM: Pairs of visual neurons work in opposition, red vs green sensitive cells and blue vs yellow sensitive cells |
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PSYCH CHP 4
The visual brain |
- Stream of action potentials containing info encoded by the retina travel to the brain along the optic nerve - Optic nerve travels from each eye to the LATERAL GENICULATE NUCLEUS, located in the thalamus - From there, visual signal travels back to the brain, to a location called AREA V1, the part of the occipital lobe that contains the primary visual cortex; info mapped to represent a visual scene |
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PSYCH CHP 4
(Visual stream) |
The ventral stream (below) travels across the occipital lobe into the lower levels of the temporal lobes and induces brain areas that represent an objects shape/identity |
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PSYCH CHP 4
(Visual stream) |
The dorsal stream (above), travels from the occipital lobe to the parietal lobes connecting with brain areas that identify the location/motion of an object |
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PSYCH CHP 4
VISUAL FORM AGNOSIA |
The inability to recognize objects by sight |
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PSYCH CHP 4
BINDING PROBLEM |
In perception, how features are linked together so that we see unified objects in our visual world rather than free-floating or miscombined features
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PSYCH CHP 4
ILUSORY CONJUCTION |
A perceptual mistake where features from multiple objects are incorrectly combined - Treisman uses FEATURE INTEGRATION THEORY, which states focused attention (processed by parietal lobe) is required to bind individual features (color, shape, size) together, to explain why ilusory conjuction occurs |
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PSYCH CHP 4
MODULAR VIEW |
Specialized brain areas, or modules, detect and represent faces or houses or even body parts |
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DISTURBED REPRESENTATION |
Pattern of activity across multiple brain regions that identifies any viewed object |
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PSYCH CHP 4
PRINCIPLE OF PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCY |
Even as aspects of sensory signals change, perception remains consistent (can recognize deviation from usual things) |
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PSYCH CHP 4
GESTALT "PERCEPTUAL GROUPING RULES" Govern how features/regions of things fit together |
1) Simplicity: Simplest explanation that considers everything is usually the best 2) Closure: We tend to fill in the missing elements of a visual scene, allowing us to percieve edges that are separated by gaps as belonging to complete objects 3) Continuity: Edges/contours that have the same orientation have what Gestalt psychologists called "good continuation" and we tend to group them together perceptually 4) Similarity: Regions that are similar iin color, lightness, shape or texture are perceived as belonging to the same object 5) Proximity: Objects that are close together tend to be grouped together 6) Common fate: Elements of a visual image that move together are perceived as parts of a single moving objects |
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PSYCH CHP 4
Theories of Object Recognition |
1. IMAGE BASED OBJECT RECOGNITION: An object you have seen before is stored in memory as a TEMPLATE (mental representation that can be directly compared to a viewed shape in the RETINAL IMAGE); your memory compares its templates to current retinal image and selects the template that most closely matches current image 2. PARTS BASED OBJECT RECOGNITION: Bran deconstructs viewed objects into collection of parts (geons); no template, allows for object recognition only @ the level of categories and not at the level of individual object |
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PSYCH CHP 4
Perceiving depth/size |
- MONOCULAR DEPTH CUES: Aspects of a scene that yield information about depth when viewed with only one eye (brain uses relative size to perceive distance) - LINEAR PERSPECTIVE: Describes phenomenon that parallel lines seem to converge as they recede into the distance - TEXTURE GRADIENT: Arises when you view more/less uniformly patterned surface bcuz the size of the pattern elements, as well as distance between them, grows smaller as the surface recedes from the observer |
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PSYCH CHP 4
INTERPOSITION |
- Occurs when one object partly blocks another - Can infer that the blocking object is closer than the blocked - Relative eight in the image depends on your field of vision - objects that are closer to you re lower in your visual field, far objects are higher |
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PSYCH CHP 4
BINOCULAR DISPARITY |
Difference in the retinal images of the 2 eyes that provides information about depth. Because our eyes are slightly separated, each registers a slightly different view of the world |
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PSYCH CHP 4
Motion perception |
To sense motion, the visual system must encode information about both space and time - Region in the middle of the temporal lobe referred to as MT is specialized for the visual perception of motion, and brain damage in this area leads to a deficit in normal motion perception - Motion perception operates in part on opponent processes and is subject to sensory adaptation |
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PSYCH CHP 4
APPARENT MOTION |
Perception of movement as a result of alternating signals reappering in rapid succession in different locations |
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PSYCH CHP 4
Blindness |
1. CHANGE IN BLINDNESS: People fail to detect changes to visual details of a scene 2. INATTENTIONAL BLINDNESS: Failure to perceive objects that are not the focus of attention |
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PSYCH CHP 4
PURE TONE |
Simple sound wave that first increases air pressure And then creates a relative vacuum
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PSYCH CHP 4
Physical dimensions of a sound wave |
1) FREQUENCE: Wavelength, depends on how often the peak in air pressure passes ear/microphone; measured in hertz (Hz or cycles/s) - Changes in physical frequency of aa sound wave = changes in PITCH: how high/low a sound is 2) AMPLITUDE: Refers to height of a sound wave, relative to the threshold for human hearing - corresponds to LOUDNESS, or a sounds "intensity" - Corresponds to TIMBRE, or listeners experience of a sound quality or resonance |
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PSYCH CHP 4
The human ear |
1) OUTER EAR: Collects sound waves; consists of pinna, auditory canal and eardrum 2) MIDDLE EAR: Transmits vibration (to inner ear); contains smallest bones, ossicles; f mechanically transmits/intensifies vibrations from eardrum to inner ear 3) INNER EAR: Embedded in skull, converts vibrations to neural impulses; contains COCHLEA: fluid filled tube that is the organ of auditory transduction |
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PSYCH CHP 4
Inner ear (the human ear) |
Divided along its length by BASILAR MEMBRANE, structure in the inner ear that undulates when vibrations from the ossicles reach the cochlea fluid |
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PSYCH CHP 4
Percieving pitch |
From inner ear, action potentials in the auditory nerve travels to the thalamus and ultimately to an area of the cerebral cortex called AREA AI, portion of the temporal lobe that contains the primary auditory cortex - Auditory areas in the left hemisphere analyze sound related to language - Right hemisphere = rhythmic sounds/music |
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PSYCH CHP 4
Auditory cortex |
Consists of 2 distinct streams 1) SPATIAL AUDITORY FEATURES (Where): Allow you to LOCATE the source of sound in space, handles by areas toward back coaudal 2) NON SPATIAL FEATURES (What): Allow you to identify the sound, handles by areas i lower part of auditory cortex |
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PSYCH CHP 4
Mechanisms to encode sound wave frequency |
- PLACE CODE: Used mainly for high frequencies, refers to the process by which different frequencies stimulate neural signals @ specific places along the basilar membrane - TEMPORAL CODE: Typically for lower frequencies, registers relatively low freq via the firing rate of action potentials entering the auditory cortex |
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PSYCH CHP 4
Hearing loss |
1. CONDUCTIVE HEARING LOSS: Arises bcuz eardrum of ossicles are damaged to the point that they cannot conduct sound waves effectively to the cochlea 2. SENSORINEURAL HEARING LOSS: Caused by damage to the cochlea, hair cells or the auditory nerve (can get implant to repair) |
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PSYCH CHP 4
Body senses |
- SOMATO SENSES: Body senses - HAPTIC PERCEPTION: Active exploration of the environment by touching/grasping objects with our hands |
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PSYCH CHP 4
THERMORECEPTORS |
Nerve fibres that sense cold/warmth, respond when your skin temperature changes |
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PSYCH CHP 4
PAIN |
- COGENITAL INTENSITY: Genetic disorder, impairment to pain perception - Pain indicates damage/potentiential damage to the body - Tissue damage is transduced by pain receptors (ii) C-FIBERS: Slow transmission, last longer and is the dull, persistent pain |
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PSYCH CHP 4
Pain pathways |
- One pathway sends signals to the somato sensory cortex and identifies where the pain is - Second pathway sends signals to the motivational and emotional centers of the brain (hypothalamus, amyalda and frontal lobe) |
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PSYCH CHP 4
Kinds of pain |
- REFERRED PAIN: When sensory information from internal and external areas converges on the same nerve cells in the spinal cord - TURF TOE: Pain at the base of the big toe as a result of bending/pushing off repeatedly |
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PSYCH CHP 4
Mobility of pain |
- GATE CONTROL THEORY OF PAIN: Signals arriving from pain receptors in the body can be stopped/gated by interneurons in the spinal cord via feedback from 2 directions - PERIAQUEDUCTAL GRAY (PAG) Neural feedback comes from a region in the midbrain called PAG - Senses feed info such as pain sensations to the brain, pattern termed "BOTTOM UP" control |
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PSYCH CHP 4
Body position, movement and balance |
- Receptors in the muscles, tendons and joints signal position of body in space where info about balance/head movement originates in the inner ear - Maintaining balance depends on the VESTIBULAR SYSTEM, the three fluid-filled semicircuclar canals, adjacent organs located next to the cochlea in inner ear - When mismatch btwn info provided by visual cues and vestibular feedback occur, motion sickness results |
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PSYCH CHP 4
Components of flavour |
- OLFACTION (smell) and GUSTATION (taste) respond to the molecular structure of substances floating into the naval cavity as you inhale or dissolve saliva - Smell/taste combine to produce perceptual experience we call flavour |
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PSYCH CHP 4
Components of SMELL |
- OLFACTORY EPITHELIUM: Mucous membrane on top of nasal cavity, contains 10 million... - OLFACTORY RECEPTOR NEURONS (ORNs): Receptor cells that initiate the sense of smell; 350 different kinds of ORNs allow us to discern different odor > Send their axons from the olfactor epithelium into the.. - OLFACTORY BULB: Brain structure located above nasal cavity, beneath frontal lobe |
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PSYCH CHP 4
Approaches to smell |
- OBJECT CENTERED APPROACH: Information about the identity of the odor object is processes from memory and then triggers an emotional response - VALENCE CENTERED APPROACH: Emotional response comes first then provides basis for determining the identity of the odor |
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PSYCH CHP 4
Purpose of smell |
Smell adaptation allows us to detect new odors that may require us to act, but after initial evaluation, reduces our sensitivity to allow us to detect other smells |
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PSYCH CHP 4
Detecting smell |
- Humans and other animals detect odors from PHEROMONES, biochemical odorant emitted by other members of its species that can affect animals behaviour/physiology - POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPH (PET): Scans to study the brains response to 2 odors, are related to testostorone - Human pheromnes related to sexual behavour |
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PSYCH CHP 4
Components of TASTE |
- Primary responsibility of chemical sense of taste is identifying things that are bad for you, poisonous or lethal - PAPILLAE: Small bumps that cover tongue, each contain... - TASTE BUDS: Organ of taste transduction; contains 50-100 taste receptors |
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PSYCH CHP 4
Taste receptors |
- Taste receptors, whose tips are called MICROVILLI, react with tastant molecules in food - 5 types of taste receptors: salt, sour, bitter, sweet, umami (savory) - UMAMI: protein packed, response to glutamate, often activated by MSG (Asian food) - There are tasters, nontasters and supertasters (kids) |
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PSYCH CHP 5
CONSCIOUSNESS |
Persons subjective experience f the world/mind; defining feature of consciousness = experience |
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PSYCH CHP 5
Mysteries of consciosness |
- PHENOMENOLOGY: How things seem to the conscious person - PROBLEM OF OTHER MINDS: Fundamental difficulty we have perceiving the consciousness of others - No way to distinguish conscious person from unconscious person, the latter being what philosophers call a ZOMBIE |
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PSYCH CHP 5
Dimensions of mind perception |
- CAPACITY FOR EXPERIENCE: Ability to feel pain, hunger, pleasure, consciousness, etc - CAPACITY FOR AGENCY: Ability for self-control, planning, memory/thought |
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PSYCH CHP 5
RENE DESCARTES |
Proposed MIND-BODY PROBLEM: Issue how the mind is related to the brain/body - Proposed that human body is a machine of physical matter, but the human mind/soul is a separate entity made of thinking substance - Suggested mind effects brain/body through pineal gland, aka endocrine gland - "the mind is what the body does" |
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PSYCH CHP 5
Mental events |
Most psychologists assume that mental events are intimately tied to brain events, such as every thought/perception/feeling is associated with a particular pattern of activation of neurons in the brain - brain activities PRECEDE activites of the conscious mind |
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PSYCH CHP 5
Nature of Consciousness |
Consciousness has 4 basic properties 1) INTENTIONALITY: Quality of being directed toward an object 2) UNITY: Resistance to divison, or the ability to integrate information from all of the bodys senses into one coherent whole 3) SELECTIVITY: Capacity to include some objects but not others - DICHOTIC LISTENING: In which people wearing headphones are given messages in each ear - COCKTIL PARTY PHENOMENON: People tune in one message while filtering out others 4) TRANSCIENCE: Tending to change |
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PSYCH CHP 5
Levels of consciousness |
1) MINIMAL CONSCIOUSNESS: Connection between person+the world; low level kind of sensory awareness/responsiveness that occurs when the mind inputs sensations and may output behaviour 2) FULL CONSCIOUESNESS: Awareness of having an experience 3) SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS: Focus of the self excluded from everything else; see self as object |
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PSYCH CHP 5
EXPERIENCE SAMPLING TECHNIQUE |
People are asked to report their conscious experience @ particular times - Consciousness is dominated by immediate environment-- what is seen/felt/heard/tasted/smelled - Current concerns are what a person is thinking about |
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PSYCH CHP 5
1. DAY DREAMING 2. DEFAULT NETWORK |
1. State of consciousness which purposeless flow of thoughts come to mind 2. Wide spread pattern of activation in many areas of the brain, involved in thinking about social life, self, past/future |
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PSYCH CHP 5
THOUGHT SUPPRESSION |
1. MENTAL CONTROL: Attempt to change conscious states of mind 2. THOUGHT SUPPRESSION: Conscious avoidance of a thought 3. REBOUND EFFECT OF THOUGHT SUPPRESSION: Tendency of a thought to return to consciousness with greater frequency following suppression |
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PSYCH CHP 5
IRONIC MONITOR |
- Attempts to steer consciousness in any direction can result in mental states that are precisely the opposite of those desired - IRONIC PROCESSES OF MENTAL CONTROL: Ironic errors occur bcuz the mental process that monitors errors can itself produce them |
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PSYCH CHP 5
FREUDIAN UNCONSCIOUSNESS |
- DYNAMIC UNCONSCIOUS: System of lifetime of hidden memories, the persons deepest instincts/desires and the persons inner struggle to control these forces > held in check by REPRESSION, mental process that removes unacceptable thoughts/memories from consciousness - FREUDIAN SLIPS: Speech errors/lapses of consciousness |
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PSYCH CHP 5
COGNITIVE UNCONSCIOUS |
All mental processes that give rise to persons thoughts/choices/emotions/behaviour even though they are not experienced by the person |
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PSYCH CHP 5
SUBLIMINAL PERCEPTION |
Thought/behaviour is influenced by stimnuli that a person cannot consciously report perceiving - Unconscious minds seemed better able than conscious minds to sort out the complex information and arrive at the best chore |
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PSYCH CHP 5
Sleep and dreaming |
Dream consciousness involves transformation of experience that is so radical it is commonly considered an ALTERED STATE OF CONSCIOUSNESS: a form of experience that departs significantly from the normal subjective experience of the world and the mind |
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PSYCH CHP 5
Sleep |
- HYPNAGOGIC STATE: Presleep consciousness - HYPNIC JERK: Sudden quiver/sensation of dropping - BETA WAVES: High frequency activity during alertness - ALPHA WAVES: Lower frequency activity during relaxtion |
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PSYCH CHP 5
5 Stages of sleep |
1. EEG moves to frequency patterns even lower than alpha waves called theta 2. Patterns are interrupted by short bursts of activity called sleep spindles and k complexes, and the sleeper becomes more difficult to awaken 3/4. Deepest stage of sleep, slow-wave, EEG patterns show delta wave pattern 5. REM SLEEP, stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements and a high level of brain activity; mind @ this time is as active as it during awareness; pulse quickens, blood pressure rises and there's sexual arousal - If awakened during REM, more likely to have dreams |
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PSYCH CHP 5
ELECTROOCULOGRAPH (EOG) |
Instrument that measures the eye movements |
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PSYCH CHP 5
Sleep needs/deprivation |
- Newborns = 6-8 sleeps in 24 hour - 6 year olds = 11-12 hours -Adults = 7-7.5 hours - Sleep following learning is good for memory consolidation - Sleep deprivation can reduce mental activity/reaction time, increasing irritation, depression and risk of injury and accidents |
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PSYCH CH 5
Sleep disorders |
- INSOMNIA: Difficulty in falling asleep/staying sleep - SLEEP APNEA: Disorder in which the person stops breathing for brief periods while sleep; involves involuntary obstruction of the breathing passage - SOMNABULISM: AKA sleepwalking, person arises and walks around while asleep (during slow-sleep, early in sleep) - NARCOLEPSY: Sudden sleep attacks occur in middle of waking activities - SLEEP-PARALYSIS: Waking up unable to move - NIGHT TERRORS: Abrupt awakenings with panic and emotional arousal |
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PSYCH CHP 5
Five major characteristics of dream consciousness |
1. Feel emotion intensely 2. thought is illogical, continuities of time/place don't apply 3. Sensation is fully formed and meaningful; deeply experience sound, touch, movement 4. Dreams occur with uncritical acceptance, as though images/events are perfectly normal 5. Difficulty remembering dream |
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PSYCH CHP 5
What dreams may be |
- Dreams reflect the days experience, tend to single out sensory experiences/objects from waking life - Dreams often consist of interleaved fragments of experiences from different times/places that our mind weaves together into a single sotry |
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PSYCH CHP 5
Dream theories |
- FREUDS THEORY: Dreams represent wishes, some of these wishes are so unacceptable that the mind can only disguise them (dreams begin meaningful) - MANIFEST CONTENT: A dreams apparent topic > Smoke screen for it's LATENT CONTENT: true meaning of dream - ACTIVATION SYNTHESIS MODEL: Dreams are produced when brain attempts to make sense of random neural activity that occurs during sleep (dreams begin randomly) |
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PSYCH CHP 5
Drugs and consciousness |
- PSYCHOACTIVE DRGS: Chemicals that influence consciousness/behaviour by alterng the brains chemical message system - Most common neurotransmitters are serotonin, dopamine, gaba and acetycholine - Drugs alter the functioning of neurotransmitters by preventing them from bonding to sites on postsynaptic neuron, by inhibiting their reuptake to the presynaptic neuron or by enhancing their bonding/transmission |
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PSYCH CHP 5
Drug use/abuse |
- DRUG TOLERANCE: Tendency for larger drug dose to be required over time to achieve the same effect - Some withdrawal symptoms signal PHYSICAL DEPENDENCE: When pain/consciousnenss/hallucinations or other unpleasant symptoms accompany withdrawal - PSYCHOLOGICAL DEPENDENCE: Strong desire to return to the drug even when physical withdrawal symptoms are gone |
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PSYCH CHP 5
(Types of psychoactive drugs) DEPRESSANTS |
Substances that reduce activity of the CNS - ALCOHOL: Initial effects are euphoria, reduced anxiety, feel positive; increases activity of gaba; become emotional/weepy - EXPECTANCY THEORY: Alcohol effects can be produced by peples expectations of how alcohol will influence them in particular situations - BALANCED PLACEBO DESIGN: Behaviour is observed following the presence/absence of an actual stimulus and also following the presence/absence of placebo stimulus - ALCOHOL MYOPIA: Alcohol hampers attention, leaving people to respond in simple ways to complex situations |
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PSYCH CHP 5
(Types of psychoactive drugs) BABITURATES, BENZODIAZEPINES AND TOXIC INHALANTS |
Sleep aids can act as anaesthetics before surgery - Antianxiety drugs treat anxiety/sleep problems but they are dangerous in combo with alcohol because they cause respiratory depression |
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PSYCH CHP 5
(Types of psychoactive drugs) STIMULANTS |
Substance that excite the CNS, heightening arousal and activity levels - Increase dopamine/norepinephrine in the brain, and alertness/energy/motivation is often produced - NARCOTICS: Highly addictive drugs derived from opium that relieve pain > endorphins are secreted by pituitary gland, reducing pain and increasing well-being - HALLUCINOGEN: Drug that alter sensation/perception and often cause visual/auditory illusions - MARIJUANA: Plant whose leaves/buds contain psychoactive drug called THC (activate neurotransmitter anandamide in brain) |
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PSYCH CHP 5
HYPNOSIS |
Social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) makes suggestions that lead to a change in another person's (the subjects) subjective experience of the world |
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PSYCH CHP 5
Induction/susceptibility to hypnosis |
- Not everyone is equally hypnotizable, susceptibility is not easily predicted by a persons personality trait - Suceptibility tested by a series of suggestions designed to put a person into a more easily influences state of mind |
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PSYCH CHP 5
Conditions due to hypnosis |
- POSTHYPNOTIC AMNESIA: The failure to retrieve memories following hypnotic suggestions to forget - HYPNOTIC ANALGESIA: Reduction of pain through hypnosis in people who are susceptible to hypnosis |
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PSYCH CHP 7
LEARNING |
Involves acquisition of new knowledge, skills or responses from experience that result in a relative permanent change in the state of learning |
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PSYCH CHP 7
1. HABITUATION 2. SENSITIZATION |
1. General process in which repeated or prolonged exposure to a stimulus results in gradual reduction in responding 2. Presenting of a stimulus leads to an increased response to a later stimulus |
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PSYCH CHP 7
Classical conditioning (Ivan Pavlov) |
- CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: When a neutral stimulus produces a naturally occuring reaction in an organism - UNCONDITIONAL STIMULUS (US): Something that reliably produces a naturally occuring reaction in an organism - UNCONDITOINAL RESPONSE (UR): Reflecive reaction that is reliably produced by a US - CONDITIONED STIMULUS (CS): Previously neutral stimulus that produces a reliable response in an organism after being paired with a US - CONDITIONED REACTION: Reaction that resembles a UR but is produced by a CS |
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PSYCH CHP 7
Basic principles of classic conditioning (John B. Watson) |
1) ACQUISITION: Phase of classical conditioning when the CS/US are presented together 2) SECOND-ORDER CONDITIONING: Conditioning where CS is paired with a stimulus that became associated with the US in an earlier procedure 3) EXTINCTION: Gradual elimination of a learned response that occurs when the CS is repeatedly presented without the US 4) SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY: Tendency of a learned behaviour to recover from extinction after a rest period 5) GENERALIZATION: Tends to take place when the CR is observed even though the CS is slightly different from the CS used during acquisition (showing discrimination, can discern btwn similar stimuli) 6) DISCRIMINATION: Capacity to distinguish btwn similar but distinct stimulus
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PSYCH CHP 7
Evolutionary elements of classic condtioning |
Any species that forages/consumes lots of food needs to develop mechanism to learn which food to avoid once it's made it ill. To have this adaptive value, the mechanism -should demonstrate rapid learning in 1 or 2 trials - Conditioning should be able to take plce over very long intervals - Organisms should develop the aversion to the smell/taste of food rather than its digestion - Learned aversions should occur with more novel foods |
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PSYCH CHP 7
BIOLOGICAL PREPAREDNESS |
Propensity for learning particular kinds of associations over others |
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PSYCH CHP 7
OPERANT CONDITIONING |
Type of learning in which consequences of an organisms behaviour determine whether it will be repeated in the future - study of operant conditioning is the exploration of behaviours that are active |
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PSYCH CHP 7
Development of operant cond. |
Thorndikes research focused on "instrumental behaviours", behaviour that required an organism to do something, solve a problem, or otherwise manipulate elements of it's environment |
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PSYCH CHP 7
B.F. Skinner |
- OPERANT BEHAVIOUR: Behaviour that an organism produces that has some impact on the environment - OPERANT CONDITIONING CHAMBER/SKINNERS BOX: Allows research to study the behaviour of smell organisms n a controled environment - Approach to the study of learning focused on reinforcement/punishment |
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PSYCH CHP 7
REINFORCER |
Any stimulus/event that functions to INCREASE likelihood of the behaviour that led to it - POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT: Presenting rewarding stimulus - NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT: Removing unpleasant stimulus |
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PSYCH CHP 7
PUNISHMENT |
Any stimulus/event that functions to DECREASE the likelihood of the behaviour that led to it - POSITIVE PUNISHMENT: Giving an unpleasant stimulus - NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT: Removing rewarding stimulus |
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PSYCH CHP 7
1. PRIMARY REINFORCER 2. SECONDARY REINFORCER |
1. Food, shelter, comfort, warmth; help satisfy biological needs 2. Associations with things of primary reinforcers; obtains, through medium, things to satisfy biological needs e.g. money |
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PSYCH CHP 7
Immediate vs. delayed reinforcement/punishment |
- Determinant of the effectiveness of a reinforcer is the amount of time between the occurrence of behaviour and the reinforcer: the more time elapses, the less effective the reinforcer - GENERAL RULE: Longer delay btwn behaviour/admisntration of punishment, less effective the punishment will be in suppressing targeted behaviour |
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PSYCH CHP 7
Basic principles of operant conditioning #1 |
1) Discrimination/importance of context: Learning takes place in contexts, not in free range of any plausible situation - Most behaviour is under a stimulus control which develops when a particular response occurs when an appropriate discriminative stimulus (indicates reponse) is presnrt - A response produces a reinforcer |
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PSYCH CHP 7
Basic principles of operant conditioning #2 |
2) Extinction: Operant behaviour undergoes extinction when the reinforcements stop e.g. smile goes way when greeted with scowls - Extinction depends on how often reinforcement is received |
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PSYCH CHP 7
Basic principles of operant conditioning #3 |
Pattern with which reinforcements appear is crucial
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PSYCH CHP 7
Schedules of reinforcement |
i) INTERVAL SCHEDULES: Based on the time intervals btwn reinforcements - Under a FIXED INTERVAL SCHEDULE (FT): Reinforcers are presented @ fixed time periods after an appropriate response - VARIABLE INTERVAL SCHEDULE (VI): Behaviour is reinforced based on average time that has expired since last reinforcement; independent of how many responses occur ii) RATIO SCHEDULES: Based on the ratio responses to reinforcements - FIXED RATIO SCHEDULE (FR): Reinforcements delivered after a specific number of responses have been made - INTERMITTENT REINFORCEMENT: When only some of the responses made are followed by reinforcement (more resistant to extinction) - INTERMITTENT REINFORCEMENT EFFECT: Fact that operant behaviours that are maintained under intermittent reinforcement are better than those maintained under continuous reinforcement |
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PSYCH CHP 7
Shaping through successive approximation |
- Most behaviours are the result of SHAPING: Learning that results from the reinforcement of successive steps to a final desired behaviour - Each behaviour is a "successive approximation" to the final product |
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PSYCH CHP 7
SUPERSTITIOUS BEHAVIOUR |
People behave as though there's a correlation between their responses and reward when it's actually accidental |
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PSYCH CHP 7
EDWARD CHACE TOLMAN |
First researcher to question strictly behaviourist interpretation of learning and was the strongest advocate of cognitive approach to operant learning - Argued there was more to learning than just knowing circumstances in the environment - Proposed animals established means-ends relationship |
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PSYCH CHP 7
Cognitive elements of operant conditioning |
- LATENT LEARNING: Something is learned but it is not manifested as a behavioural change until some time in the future - COGNITIVE MAP: Mental representation of the physical features of the environment |
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PSYCH CHP 7
Neural elements of operant conditioning |
- PLEASURE CENTERS: Brain areas in the limbic system, produce what appears ti be intensely positive experience - Neurons in the MEDIAL FOREBRAIN BUNDLE, A pathway that meanders its way from the midbrain through the hypothalamus into the NUCLEUS ACCUMBERS, are most susceptible to stimulation that produces pleasure > crucial to eating/drinking/sex |
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PSYCH CHP 7
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING |
Learning that takes place by watching the actions of others; challenges behaviourisms reinforcement-based explainations of classical conditioning |
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PSYCH CHP 7
DIFFUSION CHAIN |
Individuals initially learn a behaviour by observing another individual perform that behaviour and then serve as a model from which other individuals learn the behaviour |
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PSYCH CHP 7
ENCULTURATION HYPOTHESIS |
Being raised in a human culture has a profound effect on the cognitive abilities of chimpanzees, especially their ability to understand the intentions of others when performing tasks such as using tools - Increased observational learning |
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PSYCH CHP 7
Neural elements of observational learning |
Mirror neurons fire when an animal performs an action and when an animal watches someone else perform the same specific task (in frontal/parietal lobes) - Some kinds of observational learning are grounded in brain regions essential for action |
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PSYCH CHP 7
IMPLICIT LEARNING |
Learning that takes place largely independent of awareness of both the process and the products of information acquisition - Explicit learning becomes implicit over time - Produces memories, conversly, the existence of memories implies knowledge was acquired -Problems with implicit learning play important role in developmental dyslexia |
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PSYCH CHP 7
NERVE PATHWAYS |
Amnesiac individuals are characterized by lesions to the hippocampus and nearby structures in the medial temporal lobe - Explicit instructions increase brain activity in prefrontal cortex, parietal cortex, hippocampus, and other areas that process explicit memories - Implicit instructions show decrease in brain activity in occipital region (visual processing) |
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PSYCH CHP 7
Practice testing |
- Effective bcuz actively retreiving an item from memory on a test improves subsequent retention of such - Increases verbatim learning of the exact material that is tested; enhances transfer of learning from one situation to another |
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PSYCH CHP 7
JUDGEMENTS OF LEARNING (JOLS) |
People typically devote more time to studying items they have not learned well; JOLS are sometimes inaccurate; feeling of familiarity can be misleading as it may be results of low-level process such as perceptual priming |
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PSYCH CHP 6
MEMORY |
Ability to store and retrieve information over time |
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PSYCH CHP 6
(Three functions of memory) 1. ENCODING |
1) ENCODING: Process of transforming what we perceive, think or feel into an enduring memory - Memories are constructed, not recorded - SEMANTIC CODING: The process of relating new info in a meaningful way to knowledge that is already stores in memory (lower left part of frontal lobe+inner part of left temporal lobe) - SEMANTIC JUDGEMENTS: Think about the meaning of words (is hat a type of clothing?) - RHYME JUDGEMENTS: Think about the sound of the words (does hat rhyme with cat) - VISUAL JUDGEMENT: Think about appearance of the word (is HAT is capital letters) |
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PSYCH CHP 6
(Three functions of memory) 2. VISUAL IMAGERY ENCODING 3. ORGANIZATIONAL ENCODING |
2. The process of strong new information by converting it into mental pictures 3. Process of categorizing information according to the relationships among a series of items (upper left frontal lobe) |
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PSYCH CHP 6
Encoding of survival related info |
- Survival encoding draws elements of semantic, visual imagery and organizational coding - Survival encoding encourages participants to engage in extreme planning, which in turns benefits memory |
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PSYCH CHP 6
(3 types of memory storage) SENSORY STTORAGE |
The type of storage that holds sensory info for few seconds or less - ICONIC MEMORY: Fast decaying store of visual info - ECHOIC MEMORY: Fast decaying store of auditory info
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PSYCH CHP 6
(3 types of memory storage) SHORT TERM AND WORKING MEMORY |
- SHORT TERM: Hold nonsensory info for mmore than a few seconds but less than a minute (15-20seconds) - REHEARSAL: Process of keeping information in short term memory by mentally repeating it - Short term memory cn hold 7 meaningful items @ once - CHUNKING: Involves combining small pieces of info into larger clusters or chunks that are more easily held in short term memory - WORKING MEMORY: Active mantenance of info in short term sotrage |
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PSYCH 6
(3 types of memory storage) LONG TERM MEMORY |
Type of storage that holds info for hours, days, weeks or years - Hippocampal region of the brain is critical for putting information into long term store |
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PSYCH CHP 6
1. ANTEROGRADE AMNESIA 2. RETROGRADE AMNESIA |
1. Inability to transfer new info from the short term store to the long term store 2. Inability to retrieve information that was acquired before a particular date, usually the date of an injury/surgery |
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PSYCH CHP 6
CONSOLIDATION |
Process by which memories become stable in the brain - Shortly after memories are encoded they exists in a fragile state in which they are easily disrupted; once disruption has occurred, they are more resistant to disruption |
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PSYCH CHP 6
RECONSOLIDATION |
When a vulnerable memory is recalled so as not to be disrupted (greatly) - Disrupting reconsolidation can seemingly eliminate a conditioned fear memory in a part of the brain called amygalda |
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PSYCH CHP 6
LONG TERM POTENTIATION (LTP) |
Process whereby communications across the synapse between neurons strengthens the connections, making further communication easier |
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PSYCH CHP 6
1. RETRIVAL CUES 2. ENCODING SPECIALITY PRINCIPLE |
1. External information that is associated with stored info and helps bring it to mind 2. States that a retrival cue can serve as an effective reminder when it helps recreate the specific eay in which info was initially encoded |
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PSYCH CHP 6
TRANSFER APPROPRIATE PROCESSING |
The idea that memory is likely to transfer from one situation to another when encoding and retrieval contexts of the situations match |
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PSYCH CHP 6
RETRIVAL INDUCED FORGETTING |
Process by which retreiving an item from long term memory impairs subsequent recall of related item - Successfully remembering a past experience is accompanied by activity in the hippocamal region - Suppression of unwanted memory = reduced activity in the hippocamal region |
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PSYCH CHP 6
1. EXPLICIT MEMORY 2. IMPLICIT MEMORY 3. PROCEDURAL MEMORY |
1. Conscious/intentional retrieval of past experiences 2. IMPLICIT MEMORY: Past experiences influence later behaviour and performance, even without an effort to remember them or an awareness of the recollection 3. Gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice or "knowing how to do things" |
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PSYCH CHP 6
PRIMING |
An enhanced ability to think of a stimulus such as a word/object, as a result of recent exposure to the stimulus (example of implicit memory) 1) PERCEPTUAL PRIMING: Reflects implicit memory for the sensory features of an item (visual characteristics) and uses back of brain, visual cortex 2) CONCEPTUAL PRIMING: Reflects implicit memory of meaning of a word or how you would use an object; uses front of brain, frontal lobe |
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PSYCH CHP 6
1. SEMANTIC MEMORY 2. EPISODIC MEMORY |
1. Network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world 2. The collection of past personal experience that occured @ a particular time/place - Special bcuz it allows mental time travel |
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PSYCH CHP 6
COLLABORATIVE MEMORY |
Remembering in groups; benefits memory - NOMINAL GROUP: Combines recall of several individuals recalling target items on their own - COLLABORATIVE INHIBITION: Same # of individuals working together recall fewer items than they would have on their own > possible due to "social loafing": letting others do work and not doing much, or disrupting retrieval techniques of others |
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PSYCH CHP 6
(7 sins of memory) 1. TRANSCIENCE
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1. Forgetting what occurs with passage of time; occurs during storage phase of memory, after an experience has been encoded and before it's retrieved - RETROACTIVE INTERFERENCE: Later learning impairs memory for information acquired earlier -PROACTIVE INTERFERENCE: When earlier learning impairs memory for information acquired later |
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PSYCH CHP 6
(7 sings of memory) 2. ABSENTMINDEDNESS |
Lapse in attention that results in memory failure - Divided attention leads to less hippocamal involvement in encoding - PROSPECTIVE MEMORY: Remebering to do things in the future |
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PSYCH CHP 6
(7 sings of memory) 3. BLOCKING |
Failure to retrieve info that is available in memory even though you are trying to produce it |
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PSYCH CHP 6
(7 sings of memory) 4. MEMORY MISATTRIBUTION |
Assigning a recollection/idea to the wrong source - SOURCE MEMORY: Recall of when, where and how info was required (frontal lobe plays role in retrieval process, essential to getting correct source of memory) - FALSE RECOGNITION: A feeling of familiarity about something that hasn't been encountered before - DEJA VECU: Feeling that you've experienced something before > probs a disruption to parts of the temporal lobe that normally generte subjective feeling |
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PSYCH CHP 6
(7 sings of memory) 5. SUGGESTIBILITY 6. BIAS |
5. Tendency to incorporate misleading info from external sources into personal recollections 6. Distorting influences of present knowledge, beliefs and feelings on recollections of previous experiences - EGOCENTRIC BIAS (change bias): Tendency to exaggerate the change btwn present/past in order to make ourselves look good in retrospect |
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PSYCH CHP 6
(7 sings of memory) 7. PERSISTENCE |
Intrusive recollection of events we wish we could forget - emotional experiences better remembered than nonnemotional - FLASHBULB MEMORIES: Detailed recollection of when and where we heard about shocking events |
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PSYCH CHP 8
MULTIDIMENSIONAL SCALING |
Technique used to create map of emotional experiences |
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PSYCH CHP 8
Emotional experiences differ on 2 dimensions |
1. VALENCE: How positive/negative the experience is 2. AROUSAL: How active/positive the experience |
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PSYCH CHP 8
JAMES LANGE THEORY |
Stimulus triggers activity in the body, which in turn produces an emotional experience in the brain - Emotional experience is the CONSEQUENCES, not the cause, of our physiological reactions to objects and events in the world |
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PSYCH CHP 8
CANNON-BARD THEORY |
A stimulus simultaneously triggers activity in the body and emotional experience in the brain - Cannon claimed his theory was better than JL for several reasons 1. Emotions happen quickly, even though the body reacts slowly 2. People often have difficulty accurately detecting bodily responses 3. Non emotional stimuli (such as an increase in tempt) can cause the same bodily response as emotional stimuli due 4. There simply isn't enough unique patterns of bodily activity to account for all unique emotional experiences people have |
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PSYCH CHP 8
TWO FACTOR THEORY |
- (Schacter and Singer) Emotions are based on inferences about the causes of physiological arousal - Claied that different emotions are merely different interpretations of a single pattern of bodily activity, which they called "UNDIFFERENTIATED PHYSIOLOGICAL AROUSAL" - According to them people have the same physiological reaction to all stimuli, but they interpret that reaction differently on different occasions |
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PSYCH CHP 8
1. APPRAISAL 2. REAPPRAISAL |
1. An evaluation of the emotion-relevant aspects of a stimulus 2. Best strategy for emotional regulation -- involves changing ones emotional experience by the way one thinks about the motion-eliciting stimulus |
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PSYCH CHP 8
1. EMOTION REGULATION 2. AFFECT LABELING |
1. The strategies people use to influence their own emotional experience 2. Involves putting ones feelings into words; reduces intensity of emotional state |
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PSYCH CHP 8
EMOTIONAL EXPRESSIONS |
Observable sign of an emotonal state - When we feel happy our ZYGOMATIC MAJOR (corner of lips) and OBICULAR OCULI (eye crinkle) produces a unique facial expression "smiling" |
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PSYCH CHP 8
COMMUNICATIVE EXPRESSION |
- Human/nonhuman animals share certain facial expressions and postures - These expressions are meant to communicate info about internal states |
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PSYCH CHP 8
1. UNIVERSALITY HYPOTHESIS 2. FACIAL FEEDBACK HYPOTHESIS |
1. Emotional expressions have the same meaning for everyone 2. Emotional expressions can cause emotional experiences they signify |
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PSYCH CHP 8
DECEPTIVE EXPRESSION |
- DISPLAY RULE: Norm for the expression of emotion - Obeying a display rule requires several techniques 1. INTENSIFICATION: Involves exaggerating the expression of ones emotion 2. DEINTENSIFICATION: Muting the expression of one's emotion 3. MASKING: Involves expressing one emotion while feeling another 4. NEUTRALIZING: Involves feeling an emotion but displaying an expression |
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PSYCH CHP 8
MICRO EXPRESSIONS |
Expressions that last 1/25 - 1/5 of a second |
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PSYCH CHP 8
Four features that are readily observable and distinguish between sincere/insincere expressions |
1. MORPHOLOGY: Certain facial muscles tend to resist conscious control 2. SYMMETRY: Sincere expressions are a bit more symmetrical than insincere ones 3. DURATION: Sincere expressions last between a half second a 5 seconds, insincere expressions last longer or shorter 4. TEMPORAL PATTERNING: Sincere expressions appear and disappear smoothly over a few seconds, insincere expressions have abrupt on/offsets |
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PSYCH CHP 8
MOTIVATION |
Purpose for a psychological cause of an action - Human beings act because their emotions move them and emotions do this by 1. Emotions provide people with information about the world 2. Emotions are objectives toard which people strive |
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PSYCH CHP 8
CAPGRAS SYNDROME |
Belief that one or more of ones family members are imposters - Due to damage to neural connections between the temporal lobe (where faces are identified) and the limbic system (where emotions are generated) |
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PSYCH CHP 8
HEDONIC PRINCIPLE |
Claim that people are motivated to experience pleasure and avoid pain - PLATO/ARISTOTLE: Pleasure is what good means |
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PSYCH CHP 8
INSTINCTS |
Acting in such a way as to produce certain ends, without foresight of the ends and without previous education in the performance - Behaviourist rejected instincts bcuz 1. Behaviour should be explained by the external stimuli that evokes it and not by hypothetical internal states on which it presemably depends 2. Didn't like the idea of inherited behaviour because they believed all complex behaviour was learned |
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PSYCH CHP 8
DRIVES (Watson) |
- HOMEOSTASIS: Tendency for a system to take action to keep itself in a particular state - For survival, organisms need to maintain optimal bodily levels, if they diverge from such, the organism receives a signal to correct such - This signal = DRIVE: An internal state caused by physiological needs |
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PSYCH CHP 8
MASLOWS HIERARCHY OF NEEDS (From most to least) |
Physiological-> safety/security -> belongingness/love -> esteem -> self-actualization |
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PSYCH CHP 8
HUNGER |
Internal state that drives animals to convert matter into energy by eating |
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PSYCH CHP 8
OREXIGENIC SIGNALS |
Signals in place for when your body needs energy, tells your brain to switch hunger on |
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PSYCH CHP 8
ANOREXIGENIC SIGNALS |
If your body has sufficient energy, signals your brain to switch hunger off |
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PSYCH CHP 8
GHRELIN |
Hormone produced in the stomach, signal that tells the brain to switch hunger on - When injected, feel intense hunger |
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PSYCH CHP 8
LEPTIN |
Chemical secreted by fat cells, switches hunger off
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PSYCH CHP 8
EATING DISORDERS |
- BULIMA NERVOSA: Eating disorder characterized by binge eating followed by purging - ANOREXIA NERVOSA: Eating disorder characterized by an intense fear of being fat and severe restriction of food intake - OBESITY: Having BMI of 30+ > can be caused by death of good gut bacteria > obese people are often leptin-resistant |
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PSYCH CHP 8
How the human body resists weight loss |
1. When we gain weight, we experience an increase in both the size and the # of fat cells in our bodies 2. Our bodies respond to dieting by decreasing our METABOLISM, the rate @ which energy is used by the vidt 3. In famine, the body efficiently turn food into fat |
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PSYCH CHP 8
REPRODUCTION |
- Glands secrete hormones that travel through the blood to the brain and stimulate sexual desire - Hormone DIHYDROEPIHNDOSTERONE (DHEA) is involved in the initial onset of sexual desires (begin production @ 6) - Human fmale sexual interest is independent of ovulation - Testosterone plays role in sex drive |
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PSYCH CHP 8
(Human sexual response cycle) #1 |
Stages of physiological aroused during sexual activity, has 4 stage 1. EXCITEMENT PHASE: Muscle tension increases and blood flow increased around sexual organs, heart/respiration rates increase, blood pressure rises - Mens penis get erect - Womens vagina gets lubricated |
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PSYCH CHP 8
(Human sexual response cycle) #2 |
2. PLATEAU PHASE: Heart rate and muscle tension increases further - Mans urinary bladder closes to prevent urine from mixing with semen, muscles begin rhythmic contraction - Womens clit withdraws slightly and muscles tighten and reduce the diameter opening of the vagina |
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PSYCH CHP 8
(Human sexual response cycle) #3 and #4 |
3. ORGASM PHASE: Breathing is rapid, pelvic muscles begin a series of rhythmic contractions - Men ejaculate 2 -5 mm of semen 4. RESOLUTION PHASE: Muscles relax, blood pressure drops, body returns to resting state
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PSYCH CHP 8
How do biological and psychological motivations differ? |
1. Although we share biological motivations with most other animals, our psychological motivations are unique 2. Our psychological motivations are limitless |
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PSYCH CHP 8
1. INTRINSIC MOTIVATION 2. EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION |
1. Motivation to take actions that are themselves rewarding 2. Motvation to take actions that lead to rewarding actions |
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PSYCH CHP 8
1. CONSCIOUS MOTIVATIONS 2. UNCONSCIOUS MOTIVATIONS |
1. Motivations of which people are aware of 2. Motivations of which people are not aware of |
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PSYCH CHP 8
1. NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT 2. THEMATIC APPROACH TEST |
1. Motivation to solve worthwhile problems 2. Presents people with a series of drawings and asks them to tell stories about them - amount of achievement in persons story reveals the persons unconscious need for achievement |
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PSYCH CHP 8
APPROACH MOTIVATION |
(Promotion focused) Motivation to experience a positive outcome - People who are high approach = happier when rewarded |
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PSYCH CHP 8
AVOIDANCE MOTIVATION |
(Prevention focused) Motivation not to experience a negative outcome - Tends to be more powerful than approach motivation - People who are high avoidance = more anxious when threatened |
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PSYCH CHP 8
TERROR MANAGEMENT THEORY |
Theory about how people respond to knowledge of their own mortality - Cope with ones mortality by developing cultural world views |
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PSYCH CHP 8
MORTALITY-SALIENCE HYPOTHESIS |
Prediction that people who are reminded of their own mortality will work to reinforce their cultural world views |
