Adult Development - Heather

Front 1

Discuss changing conceptions of adolescence over the past century.

Back 1

- Early 2th century G. Stanley Hall came up with the "storm-and-stress" perspective. His idea came from Darwin's evolution theory. He said adolescence was a turbulent period where humans evolve from savages to civilized beings. This theory shown to be exaggerated.
- Anna Freud (1969): Viewed teen years as biologically based, universal developmental disturbance.
- Margaret Mead (1928): first to point out variability in adolescent adjustment. Said that social environment is responsible for the range of teenage experiences. i.e. erratic behavior or calmness.
- Today: Psychological, biological, and social forces influence adolescent behavior. Culture also affects adolescent development. More social environment supports = better the teenager fares with biological changes of development.

Front 2

Describe pubertal changes in body size, proportions, sleep patterns, motor performance, and sexual maturity.

Back 2

- Body size: Growth hormone and thyroxin are hormones that lead to changes in body size. First sign of puberty is weight and height gain. Usually happens for girls at age 10 and boys at 12.5. Growth ends at age 16 for girls and 17.5 for boys. They add 50-75lbs and 10 to 11 inches.
- Body proportions: Hands, legs and feet accelerate first followed by torso. This explains why adolescents usually look out of proportion. Sex differences appear which is caused by sex hormones on the skeleton. Boys shoulders broaden and girls hips broaden. Boys have longer legs because they have 2 extra years of preadolescence growth. Boys gain more muscle than girls.
- Sleep patterns: Teenagers need a lot more sleep to account for the growth their bodies are making. revisions of sleep pattern occur in the brain which is why teens go to sleep later. sleep deprived teens perform poorly.
Motor Performance: research shows continued pruning of unused synapses in the cerebral cortex in frontal lobes that govern action and though. Growth of neural fibers accelerate linking the two cerebral hemispheres. The adolescent brain shows improved processing speed, attention, memory, planning, and self-regulation. Excitatory neurotransmitters increase which make teens react to stress more intensely and they experience pleasure more intensely which explains why drug seek to cover emotional pain. Because of increased neurotransmitters teens become more susceptible to depression and disorders.
- Sexual maturity: primary sexual characteristics : changes in reproductive system organs. secondary sexual characteristics: visible on the outside of body like enlarged breasts, pubic hair. These characteristics develop in a standard way but it varies when this begins to occur.

Front 3

Cite factors that influence the timing of puberty.

Back 3

- Hereditary
- Nutrition
- Exercise
- Overall physical health
- A secular trend toward earlier puberty has occurred in industrialized nations as physical well being increased.

Front 4

Describe brain development in adolescence.

Back 4

- research shows continued pruning of unused synapses in the cerebral cortex in frontal lobes that govern action and thought. Growth of neural fibers accelerate linking the two cerebral hemispheres and between the frontal lobes and other brain areas which account for communication. The adolescent brain shows improved processing speed, attention, memory, planning, and self-regulation. Excitatory neurotransmitters increase which make teens react to stress more intensely and they experience pleasure more intensely which explains why drug seek to cover emotional pain. Because of increased neurotransmitters teens become more susceptible to depression and disorders. No research to the linkage of what hormonal changes of puberty have to do with brain growth.

Front 5

Discuss adolescents reactions to the physical changes of puberty, including sex differences, and describe the influence of family and culture.

Back 5

- Girls commonly act with surprise, but the more warning they have in advance the better they deal with it. Today few girls are uninformed. Parents who talk with their children about the changes can help them adapt better. Girls tell friends.
- Adolescents seem to report negative mood all together. Parent child conflict increases.
- Boys have mixed feelings. They know about it before hand but say no one spoke with them about it. Boys who have advanced info report having early ejaculation and are shocked, but react positively. Boys dont usually tell friends and they get less social support.

Front 6

Discuss the impact of pubertal timing on adolescent adjustment, noting sex differences.

Back 6

- Early maturing boys are relaxed, independent, self confident and physically attractive and our popular with mates. Late maturing boys are anxious, talkative, and attention seeking, they have more psychological problems and problems behaviors.
- Early maturing girls are unpopular, withdrawn, lacking in self confidence, anxious, and more likely to be depressed, they don't hold many leadership positions, more involved in bad behavior and dont perform well in school. Late maturing girls are physically attractive, lively, sociable, and leaders.

Front 7

Describe the nutritional needs of adolescents, and cite factors that contribute to serious eating disorders.

Back 7

- Rise in food intake and require more calories. they needs guidance in making healthy choices, more family meals= better eating choices. Because girls do not feel comfortable with their weight gain it tends to lead them to partaking in an eating disorder. Cultural admiration i.e. models can cause girls to strive to look like what is socially popular.

Front 8

Discuss social and cultural influences on adolescent sexual attitudes and behavior.

Back 8

- In north america sexual attitudes are restricted. Parents dont usually talk about sex with children. Parents dont talk because they are worried about being embarrassed but it shows that talking to them makes the child takes less risk. So kids get sex info from tv or magazines which show people taking risks and not protecting themselves. less talk equals more pornography looking. Children left bewildered because parents frown on it but tv depicts it as good.

Front 9

Discuss factors related to sexually transmitted disease and to teenage pregnancy and parenthood, including interventions for adolescent parents.

Back 9

- Adolescents highest age group of transmitted disease conception. Takes 10 years for hiv virus to show up. Teens share needles which can increase chances. Boys more likely to give stds than girls.
- Factors that influence teenage pregnancy: 1. not enough effective sex ed classes, 2. convenient low cost birth control is not available, 3. many families live in poverty which encourage risk taking. Increased social acceptance of single parents and the fulfillment that a child will bring increases the amount of girls keeping their babies.
- teenage Parenthood usually is associated with poverty. Early parents are susceptible to low parental warmth, domestic violence, child abuse, parental divorce. Girls who are at risk for early pregnancy do poor in school, drink alcohol, take drugs, depressed. Early mothers = less education, unstable marriages, and poorness. do not get prenatal care and know less about childs development.
- Young parents need healthcare, to stay in school, job training, instruction in parenting, child care and life management skills. Schools that provide this increase success for teen mothers. Encouragement from family members helps the parent stay in school and succeed. Usually contact with the father diminshes. Encouragement from parents helps the father be more involved and when the father is around to provide support the mother feels less stress and sustains a relationship with him and the child does better.

Front 10

Describe the major characteristics of formal operational thought.

Back 10

In Piaget's formal operational stage, teens engage in hypothetico- deductive reasoning: when faced with a problem, they form a hypothesis about the variables that might affect the outcome, deduce logic, testable inferences, and systematically isolate and combine variables to see which inferences are confirmed.
-Propositional thought develops. Teens evaluate the logic of a statement apart from real world circumstances.

Front 11

Discuss recent research on formal operational thought and its implications for the accuracy of Piaget's formal operational stage

Back 11

- Teens are likely to think abstractly and systematically in situations where they have guidance and practice in such reasoning. Piaget's highest stage depends on learning opportunities available in school.

Front 12

Explain how information-processing researchers account for cognitive change in adolescence, emphasizing the development of scientific reasoning.

Back 12

Information-processing researchers believe that a variety of specific mechanisms underlie cognitive gains in adolescence: improved attention and inhibition, more effective strategies, greater knowledge, improved cognitive self-regulation, gains in speed of thinking and processing capacity, and advances in metacognition.
- Scientific reasoning indicates that the ability to coordinate theory with evidence improves over adolescence and into adulthood. Gradually, young people solve increasingly complex problems and reflect on their thinking, acquiring more mature metacognitive understanding.

Front 13

Summarize cognitive and behavioral consequences of adolescents new found capacity for advanced thinking.

Back 13

- As adolescents reflect on their own thoughts, they think more about themselves, and two distorted images of the relation between self and other appear- the imaginary audience and personal fable. Teenagers capacity to think about possibilities prompt idealistic visions at odds with everyday reality, and they often become fault-finding critics. Compared with adults, teens have difficulty with decision making, more often falling back on well learned, intuitive judgement.

Front 14

Discuss Erickson's theory of identity development

Back 14

Erickson's theory regards identity as the major personality achievement of adolescence. Young people who successfully resolve the psychological conflict of identity versus role confusion construct a solid self-definition consisting of self-chosen values and goals.

Front 15

Describe changes in self-concept and self-esteem during adolescence

Back 15

- Cognitive changes lead adolescents self-descriptions to become more organized and consistent. Personal and moral values appear as key themes.
- Self-esteem further differentiates and, for most adolescents rises. Authoritative parenting and encouragement from teachers support positive self-esteem.

Front 16

Describe the four identity statuses, the adjustment outcomes of each status, and factors that promote identity development.

Back 16

Identity development is often measured by exploration of alternatives and commitment to self-chosen values and goals. IDENTITY ACHIEVEMENT (COMMITMENT, PROCEEDED BY EXPLORATION) and IDENTITY MORATORIUM (EXPLORATION WITHOUT HAVING REACHED COMMITMENT) are psychologically healthy identity statuses.
- Long-term IDENTITY FORECLOSURE (COMMITMENT WITHOUT EXPLORATION) and IDENTITY DIFFUSION (LACK OF BOTH EXPLORATION AND COMMITMENT) are related adjustment difficulties.
- An information-gathering cognitive style, healthy parental attachment, interaction with diverse peers, close friendships, and schools and communities that provide rich and varied opportunities promote healthy identity development
- Similarly, supportive parents, peers and schools can foster strong secure ETHNIC IDENTITY among minority adolescents. A BI-CULTURAL IDENTITY offers additional emotional benefits.

Front 17

Discuss Kohlberg's theory of moral development, and evaluate its accuracy

Back 17

- Believed that Moral reasoning develops through 3 levels, each contain 2 stages.
- At the PRECONVENTIONAL LEVEL, morality is externally controlled by rewards, punishments, and authority figures.
- At the CONVENTIONAL LEVEL, conformity to laws and rules preserves positive human relationships and social order.
- At the POSTCONVENTIONAL LEVEL, morality is defined by abstract, universal principles of justice.
-Reexamination suggest that moral maturity can be found in stages 3 and , few people move beyond postconventional level. Kohlbergs moral stages are loosely organized and overlapping.

Front 18

Describe influences on moral reasoning and its relationship to moral behavior

Back 18

- Experiences contributing to moral maturity include: warm, rational parenting, years of schooling, and peer discussions of moral issues. In villages where moral cooperation is based on relation the reasoning does not pass stage 3.
- maturity of moral reasoning is only modestly related to moreal behavior. moral action is influenced by someones empathy and guilt, temperment, history of morally relevant experiences and moral self-relevance.
- most religious affiliated teens are advantaged in moral values and behavior.

Front 19

explain why early adolescence is a period of gender intensification, and cite factors that promote the development of an androgynous gender identity.

Back 19

- Biological, social, and cognitive factors contribute to gender intensification. As pubertal changes occur concern with what others think strengthens and teens focus on gender linked attributes and parents focus on gender appropriate behavior.

Front 20

discuss changes in parent-child and sibling relationships during adolescence

Back 20

- When teens quest for autonomy they tend to rely less on parents for decision making. they question parent authority. warm and supportive parenting, with consistent monitoring has favorable outcomes.
- sibling relationships become less intense. teens separate from family and become close to peers. Attachment still remains strong for most young people.

Front 21

describe adolescent friendships, peer groups, and dating relationships and their consequences for development

Back 21

- adolescent relationships are based on: understanding, loyalty, and self-disclosure. girls place importance on emotional closeness and boys share activities and accomplishments.
- as long as relationships are healthy they promote self-concept, perspective taking, identity, and capacity for intimate relationships, help deal with stress and improve attitudes towards school.
- adolescent peer groups are organized into cliques (important to girls) and crowds. parenting styles influence the assortment of these cliques. With interest in dating mixed-sex cliques grow and then decline. crowds diminish as teens find personal values and goals.
- intimacy in dating lags behind that of same-sex friendships. a positive relationship with parents and friends contribute to romantic ties that enhance emotional and social development in teens.

Front 22

discuss factors related to adolescent suicide, along with approaches for prevention and treatment.

Back 22

- Depression is the most common psychological problem in teen years with girls at greater risk.
- Biological and environmental factors include: heredity, maladaptive parenting, learned-helplessness attributional style, and negative life events.
- suicide rate increases dramatically at adolescence with boys accounting for most deaths and girls make unsuccessful attempts.
- teenagers at risk may be: intelligent, solitary, and withdrawn, and antisocial with family turmoil.

Front 23

describe current theories of biological aging, including those at the level of DNA and body cells, and those at the level of organs and tissues.

Back 23

- once body structures reach maximum capacity biological aging or senescence begins.
- specific genes may control certain age-related biological changing in dna and body cells. telemore shortening results in senescent cells, which contribute to disease and loss of functioning.
- dna may be damaged as random mutations accumulate, which causes less efficient cell repair and replacement and abnormal cancerous cells.
- release of free radicals is likely the cause of age related dna and cellular damage.
- genetic and cellular deterioration affects tissues and organs. the CROSS LINKAGE THEORY OF AGING suggest that over time protein fibers form links and become less elastic, causing negative changes in organs.
- declines in endocrine and immune systems account for aging

Senescence
- Influences
1. Genetic
2. Lifestyle
3. Environment
4. History
- Average lifespan increased 20-25 years over past century

Theories of biological aging
- DNA cellular level:
1. Programmed effects of specific genes ( aging genes, telomere shortening)
2. Random events: mutations and cancer, free radicals
- organ/tissue level:
1. Cross-linkage theory
2. Gradual failure of endocrine system
3. Declines in immune system functioning

Front 24

describe the physical changes of aging, paying special attention to the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, motor performance, the immune system, and reproductive capacity.

Back 24

- Declines in heart and lung performance are apparent during exercise.
- heart disease is a leading cause of death in adults.
- Atherosclerosis is a serious cardiovascular disease involving fatty deposits on arterial walls.
- athletic skills: i.e. speed, strength, and coordination peak in the early twenties.
- Endurance, arm-hand steadiness, and aiming peak in late twenties, early thirties.
- less active lifestyles rather than biological aging account for the most age-related decline in athletic skill and motor performance.
- the immune system strengthens through adolescence and declines after 20. this is due to the shrinking thymus gland. psychological stress may contribute.
- Women's reproductive capacity declines with age due to reduced quality and quantity of ova. men show a gradual decrease in semen volume and sperm quality after age 35.

Respiratory Changes
-Heart
1. Few resting changes, lower performance under stress
2. Hypertension, atherosclerosis
3. Diseases declining due to better lifestyle
-Lungs
1. Maximum vital capacity declines after age 25
2. Stiffness makes breathing harder with age

Mother performance in adulthood
- Athletic skills peak between age 20 and 35
1. Decline gradually until sixties or seventies, then faster
- Continued training slows loss
1. Keep more vital capacity muscle, reduces speed

Immune system in adulthood
- Declines after age 20
1. Fewer T cells from shrinking thymus
2. B cells don't work as well without T cells
3. Stress weakens immune response

Reproductive capacity
- Parenthood in twenties seen ideal
- Trend toward delaying childbirth
1. Fertility problems increase with age
2. Fertility drops sharply after age 44 for women
3. Men show a gradual decrease in fertility

Variations in health
- U.S. Death rates in early adulthood higher than other industrialized nations
- SES variations (socio-economic status)
- Lack of universal healthcare
- Environmental factors

Front 25

describe the impact of SES, nutrition, obesity, and exercise on health in adulthood

Back 25

- Economically advantaged, educated individuals sustain good health over most of their adult life. individuals with limited education and lower income have declining health.
- SES differences in health-related living conditions and habits are largely responsible.
- some weight gain between ages 25 and 50 from decrease in BMR, but many young adults show a large increase because of laziness and diets high in sugar and fat.
- exercise reduces body fat, prevents disease, and enhances psychological well-being.
- moderately intense exercise on most days leads to health benefits, which increase with more intensity.

Exercise
- Only one third gets enough
1. At least 20 minutes of moderate exercise five or more days a week
2. More often, more vigorous is better
- About 40% of Americans are inactive
1. Women less active than men
2. Low SES

Benefits of exercise
- Reduces fat, builds muscle
- Boosts immune system, prevents some diseases
- Cardiovascular benefits
- Mental health benefits
1. Stress reduction
2. Self-esteem
- Longer life

Front 26

describe trends in substance abuse in early adulthood, and discuss the health risks of each.

Back 26

Substance use in older adulthood
- Peaks at 19-22 years, then declines
- Up to 29% ages 21-25 are substance users
- Cigarettes, alcohol most common
- Drugs
1. Marijuana
2. Stimulants
3. Prescription drugs
Cigarette smoking
- About 24% of U.S. Adults
1. Numbers slowly declining
2. Less with higher education, but many college students smoke
3. More men smoke and more women are starting to smoke
4. Most smokers start before 21
- Deadly health risks
- Hard to quit
1. Most in treatment programs restart

Drinking in early adulthood
- 11% of men, 3% of women are heavy drinkers
1. About one-third are alcoholics
- Genetic, cultural factors in alcoholism
- Causes mental, physical problems
- High social costs
- Treatment is difficult

Front 27

Summarize sexual attitudes and behaviors in young adults, including sexual orientation, sexual coercion, and premenstrual syndrome

Back 27

Heterosexual activity in early adulthood
- Most have intercourse by age 25
- Most sex in context of relationship
1. 70% only one partner in past year
2. Partners similar to each other
- Sexual infrequent
1. Only 1/3 a week or more
2. More often in twenties, declines with age
- Most are satisfied
1. 80% of those in a relationship are satisfied with their sexual relationship

Sexual Coercion
- Perpetrator characteristic
1. Believe traditional gender roles
2. Approve violence against women; accept rape myths
3. Perceive behavior inaccurately
4. History of own abuse, promiscuity
5. Alcohol abuse
- Cultural forces
1. Men taught dominance, competition, aggression
2. Women taught submission
3. Acceptance of violence
4. Aggressive pronography

Consequences of rape and sexual abuse
- Trauma response
1. Immediate shock
2. Long-term problems: Depression, Social anxiety, Substance abuse
- Physical injury
- STDs
- General ill health
- Negative behaviors

- nearly 40% of women experience pms in some form

Front 28

Explain psychological stress affects health

Back 28

Chronic psychological stress induces physical responses that contribute to heart disease, cancer, and gastrointestinal problems. early adulthood is stressful so its important to have strong social ties

Front 29

summarize prominent theories on the restructuring of thought in adulthood, including those of Perry and Labouvie-vief

Back 29

- cognitive development past piaget's idea is called post-formal thought.
- Perrys theory of EPISTEMIC COGNITION says college students move from dualistic thinking, diving info into right and wrong, to relativistic thinking, awareness of multiple truths.
- Mature adults more to commitment withing relativistic thinking that synthesizes contradictions.
- peer collaboration on challenging problems is important.
- Labouvie-vief says the to specialize motivates adults to progress from the world of possibilities to PRAGMATIC THOUGHT, which uses logic as a tool to solve real-world problems. and adults gain in COGNITIVE AFFECTIVE COMPLEXITY- coordination of positive and negative feelings into an organized structure.

Front 30

discuss development of expertise and creativity in adulthood

Back 30

- further education leads to expertise, which enhances problem solving and is necessary for creativity.
- creativity rises in early adulthood, peaks in late thirties its development varies according to
discipline.
- Personal and situational factors jointly promote creativity.

Front 31

describe the impact of a college education on young peoples lives, and discuss the problem of dropping out

Back 31

- academic programs and campus life helps students gain knowledge in reasoning ability, broaden their attitudes and values, and show enhanced self-understanding and self-esteem.
- Dropout rates are higher for lower ses and ethnic minority students. Personal and institutional factors contribute to dropouts. and it is very likely in the first year.

Front 32

Trace the development of vocational choice, and note factors that influence it

Back 32

- vocational factors move through a
1. fantasy period: where children explore career options by fantasy.
2. tentative period; where teenagers weigh different careers against their interests, abilities and values
3. realistic period: young people settle on a vocational category and then a specific occupation.
- vocational choice is influence by personality, parents provision of education opportunities, vocational info, encouragement, and close relationships with teachers.
- women progress in man dominated careers has been slow and their achievements lag behind mens. gender stereotyped messages play a key role.

Front 33

define emerging adulthood, and explain how cultural change has contributed to the emergence of this period

Back 33

- in emerging adulthood, young adults about age 18-25 are released from parental oversight but have not yet taken on adult roles. they prolong identity development as they explore in depth.
- increased education needs for careers and globalization have influenced the emergence of emerging adulthood.
-

Front 34

describe ericksons stage of intimacy versus isolation, noting personality changes that take place during early adulthood

Back 34

- intimacy versus isolation: balancing independence and intimacy as they form close relationships with a partner. secure identity fosters attainment of intimacy.

Front 35

summarize levinsons and vaillants psychological theories of adult personality development, including how they apply to both men's and women's lives and their limitations.

Back 35

- Levinson's: a series of eras, each consisting of a transition, and a stable phase, in which young people revise their life structure.
- men construct a dream about a career for their life and women construct a dream involving marriage and a career. Men settle down in thirties and women don't until middle adulthood.
- Vaillant: twenties are devoted to intimacy, the thirties are career consolidation, forties to generativity, and the fifties and sixties to cultural values.

Front 36

describe the social clock and how it relates to adjustment in adulthood

Back 36

- social clock: age-graded expectations for major life events- can be a major source of personality change.
- Following a social clock grants confidence to young adults; deviating from it can bring psychological distress

Front 37

Discuss factors that affect mate selection, and explain the role of romantic love in young adults' quest for intimacy.

Back 37

- romantic partners resemble one another in age, ethnicity, ses, religion and personal and physical attributes
- women seek traits that ensure childrens survival.
- men seek traits ensuring sexual pleasure and to bear offspring.
- gender roles profoundly influence criteria for mate selection.
- The triangular theory of love is the balance among intimacy, passion, and commitment changes as romantic relationships move from the intense sexual attraction to passionate love toward more settled compassionate love. commitment is key to a satisfying enduring relationship.

Front 38

cite characteristics of adult friendships and sibling friendships, including differences between same-sex, other-sex, and sibling friendships.

Back 38

- Adult friendships are based on trust, intimacy, and loyalty.
- womens same-sex tend to be more intimate than mens.
- after college other-sex friendships declines with age for men but increase for highly educated and employed women.
- adult sibling relationships resemble friendships especially among sisters.

Front 39

cite factors that influence loneliness, and explain the role of loneliness in adult development

Back 39

- unhappiness resulting from a gap between the social relationships we have and those we desire.
- declines with age as we form intimate ties
- loneliness can encourage young people to reach out to others to better understand themselves.

Front 40

trace phases of the family life cycle that are prominent in early adulthood, noting factors that influence these phases

Back 40

- leaving home is a major step in assuming responsibilities. departures for education occur earlier than for full-time work or marriage.
- ses and ethnicity influence if a person will live alone before marriage. many unmarried adults return home for a period of time.
- 90% of Americans marry later than they have in the past. couples work harder to define martial roles. marriages are affected by the womens place in the workforce.
- quality of marriage predicts mental health for men and women. women feels overwhelmed with demanding roles of work and family.
- most people become parents at an older age and have fewer children than in the past.
- the arrival of a child presents new responsibilities and a shift in roles. shared parenting predicts a happier and positive parents.
- families with young children that co-parent gain warm martial interaction, feel competent, and have children who develop well.
- family with teenagers, parents must give guidance and freedom with a looseness of control.
- martial satisfaction declines in this phase

Front 41

discuss the diversity of adult lifestyles, focusing on single hood, cohabitation, and childlessness.

Back 41

- single hood has risen because of later marriage and divorce rate. singles appreciate freedom and mobility and women adjust better to it than men.
- cohabitation has risen dramatically with well-educated and economically advantaged adults. cohabiters are less conventional in values, behavior, and less committed to their partner, and their marriages are more likely to fail. gay and lesbians who cohabit have good relationships comparable to marriages.
- childless adults are well-educated and career-orienteted who are happy with their decision. but when childlessness is out of control people become sad.

Front 42

discuss trends in divorce and remarriage, along with factors that contribute to them

Back 42

- half of u.s. marriages dissolve, often while children are at home.
- 2/3 remarry
- maladaptive communication patterns, younger ages at marriage, family history of divorce, poverty, and the changing status of women contribute to divorce.
- finding a new partner is important especially for men.
- remarriages break up because of prominence of practical concerns rather than love in the decision to remarry, the persistence of negative styles of communication, the acceptance of divorce as a solution to martial difficulties, and problems adjusting to step family

Front 43

describe patterns of career development, and cite difficulties faced by women, ethnic minorities, and couples seeking to combine work and family

Back 43

- mens career paths are continuous and womens are discountinous due to child rearing and family needs.
- young adults in the work worlds progress is affected by opportunities for promotion, personal characteristics, self-efficiency, and access to an effective mentor.
- women and ethnic minorities have made limited progress in career advancement.
- women deal with time away from the labor market, low self-efficacy, and lack of mentoring in male field, and gender stereotypes.
- racial bias in the labor market is strong, and ethnic women who succeed show a high sense of self-efficacy.
- couples in dual-career marriages experience overload. balancing work and family brings a better standard of living, enhanced psychological well being, and happier marriages. time-flexible workplace policies reduce stress while augmenting work performance