Abs 355: Exam 2

Front 1

Osteichthyes

Back 1

“bone” “fish”

Most species-rich and morphologically diverse lineage of vertebrates

Front 2

What is the largest extant group of fishes?

Back 2

teleosts

Front 3

When was the "Age of the Fishes?"

Back 3

The Devonian period

Front 4

Teleost

Back 4

common phrase for bony fishes

Front 5

From what period are first fish fossils available?

Back 5

late Silurian

Front 6

What are some Osteichthyes shared derived characteristics?

Back 6

1.Swim bladder

2.Lateral line (pattern)

3.Ossification of endoskeleton

4.Usually covered by overlapping scales

5.Fin webs supported by bony dermal rays (instead of cartilage)

Front 7

Actinopterygii

Back 7

Ray-finned Fishes

Front 8

Sarcopterygii

Back 8

Lobe-finned Fishes

Front 9

ganoine

Back 9

Covering of scales derived from enamel

Front 10

cosmine

Back 10

Covering of scales derived from dentine

Front 11

Describe Actinopterygii characteristics

Back 11

•Raysof paired fins extend from central shaft in feather like manner. Muscles withinbody wall.

•Covering of scales derived from enamel (ganoine)

Front 12

Describe Sarcopterygii characteristics

Back 12

•Rays spread outward like fan from bones at base of fins. Muscles outside body wall, along fin.

•Coveringof scales derived from dentine (cosmine)

Front 13

Describe the ecology of the Devonian period

Back 13

• Warm,humid environment with many fresh-water habitats to exploit
  
• High primary productivity, much food available in aquatic environments, but low terrestrial diversity
  
• Only mosses and simple vascular plants on land
  
• By mid-Devonian, there were horsetails, indicating moist terrestrial habitats
  

Front 14

Palaeoniscids

Back 14

a primitive fish

Front 15

What are the three scale types?

Back 15

1. Ganoid
   
2. Placoid
   
3. Bony ridge scale
   

Front 16

What are some Actinopterygii derived characteristics?

Back 16

1.Brain enlargement (evertcerebral hemispheres)

2.Nearly symmetrical upper and lower caudal fins (homocercal)

3.Fin membrane supported by fewer bony rays (flexibility)

4. Jawbone and muscle arrangement produced quick jawaction, but low force

Front 17

What was the largest radiation of vertebrates – approx. 30,000+extant species?

Back 17

Evolution of the Actinopterygii

Front 18

Allopatric

Back 18

geographically isolated

Front 19

Sympatric

Back 19

two species in the same area

Front 20

What are the Actinopterygian divisions?

Back 20

1. Paleonisciformes: (ancestral fish)
   
2. Neopterygii
   

Front 21

Paleonisciformes

Back 21

• ancestral fish
• Spiracle, body support by notochord, mostly cartilaginous skeleton
  
• MostlyHeterocercal caudal fin
  

Front 22

Neopterygii

Back 22

• Manymorphologies, many habitats
  
• Changes in skull, jaw, feeding musculature
  
• Bodysupport by vertebrae (replaced notochord)
  
• Mostly Homocercal caudal fin

Front 23

Paleonisciformes examples

Back 23

Paddlefish, Sturgeon, Bichir

Front 24

Neopterygii examples

Back 24

Gar, Bowfin

Front 25

Armoured Bichir ecology

Back 25

Freshwater, tropical Africa and Nile River Floodplain and estuary

Front 26

Armoured Bichir physiology

Back 26

• Elongated, up to 15 dorsal finlets (each with spine)
  
• Ganoid scales all over body
  

Front 27

Armoured Bichir primitive characteristics:

Back 27

• Fleshy pectoral fins (resembles lobe-finned fishes)
  
• Rudimentary lungs – use when in poorly oxygenatedwater
  
• Larvae have external gills
  
• Nocturnal
  

Front 28

Actinopterygii -> Paleonisciformes ->

Acipenseriformes - give examples

Back 28

Sturgeon, Paddlefish

Front 29

Paddlefish

Back 29

• found in freshwater rivers (Mississ, OH,Yellowstone)
  
• plankton feeder (swim thru water with mouth agape)
  
• can feed and live without paddle (probably more for sensor of electroreceptors)
  
• can live 50 years
  
• also conservation concerns from overfishing and dams
  
• 2 m length.
  

Front 30

Sturgeon

Back 30

• strongly heterocercal tail
  
• barbules, ganoid scales, protrusible type jaw for bottom feeding (evolved independently from teleost)
  
• only in Northern Hemishphere(Atlantic and Pacific side)
  
• some are anadromous (to estuaries) and others are only freshwater
  
• reduction of dermal skeleton
  
• among the longest-living andreproduce late (20 yrs)
  
• K-selected and caviar = conservation concern
  
• found in MRG, Missip,Columbia
  

Front 31

Neopterygians

Back 31

• new clade in late Permian with new jaw mechanism
  
• Garand Bowfin are primitive Neopterygians
  

Front 32

Gar

Back 32

• fish eaters, ganoidscales, heterocercaltail.
  
• Alligator Gar is largest freshwater fish(exclusively fresh) and can be 8 to 10 feet
  
• Gar found only in N.A.
  
• Swimbladder acts as primitive lung.
  

Front 33

Bowfin

Back 33

• similar habitat at gar
  
• also eat fish
  
• heterocercal tail
  

Front 34

Actinopterygii -> Neopterygii -> Teleost

Back 34

• DerivedTeleosts with specializations
  
• Probably evolved in sea, radiated to freshwater, extinction event in seas, now extant fish derived from freshwater ancestor
  
• Occupy many different ecological nichesManychanges in feeding modes: Jaw, Gill cover, Cranium
  

Front 35

Hypomandibulla

Back 35

swing out laterally when mouth opened

Front 36

What are the benefits of Hypomandibulla?

Back 36

•Increased volume of oral chamber and powerful suction

Front 37

Ecological speciation

Back 37

speciation occurs as result of adaption to different ecological conditions or adapt to different environments

(can happen in either allopatry or sympatry)

Front 38

What are the Teleostjaw and gill cover specializations?

Back 38

1.Expansion of orobranchial chamber: operculum became connected to mandible - aided in opening the mouth

2.Anterior articulated end of maxilladeveloped ball-and-socket joint - pointed maxilla’s teeth forward tohelp grasp prey; increased suction

Front 39

orobranchial

Back 39

the mouth and gills

Front 40

Jaw protrusion

Back 40

• evolved independently 3-4 times in different clades
  
• Mobility in skeletal elements that rim the mouth
  
• Ligamentous attachments: allow sliding of premaxilla on top of cranium without dislocation
  

Front 41

Hypothesis for development of the Jaw protrusion

Back 41

1.Aid in gripping prey

2.Increased predator approach velocity

Front 42

Ear Stones

Back 42

• mineralized structures in innerear
  
• Growth is in proportion to fish’sgrowth
  
• Can reflect environmental conditions encountered
  
• Reconstruct life histories
  
• Fisheries managers can imprint code to mark juveniles
  

Front 43

Homocercal caudal fin

Back 43

Symmetrical caudal fin and swim bladder allow horizontal swimming without using paired finsfor control (different for sharks – cause lift)

Front 44

Paired fins

Back 44

•Flexible, mobile, diverse in shape, size,position •More specialized for gathering food, courtship, walking, flying

Front 45

Actinopterygii -> Neopterygii -> Teleost

Representatives

Back 45

1.Osteoglossomorpha

2.Elopomorpha

3.Clupeomorpha

4.Euteleostei

•Ostariophysi

Front 46

Osteoglossomorph examples

Back 46

Arawana, African elephant nosed fish, Arapaima

Front 47

Arawana

Back 47

• tropical freshwater
  
• 1 meter to 3 meter length
  
• surface feeders with upturned mouth
  
• feed a variety ofvertebrates at surface (inclsnakes, frogs, birds, bats), but mostly insects, fish
  
• Can see at sushi restaurants
  

Front 48

Osteoglossomorpha overview

Back 48

• Basedon unique jaw characteristics
  
• 220species, mostly freshwater
  

Front 49

Elapomorpha examples

Back 49

• tarpon
• American eel (catadromous) –matures in rivers, moves to oceans to breed and die, larvae hatch in ocean and migrate upstream to mature
  

Front 50

Clupeomorpha examples

Back 50

• herring
  
• anchovy – mostly marine schooling fish
• Shad are anadromous – plankton feeders – don’t do well in cold water, so usually found in reservoirs (non-native in AZ) may compete withnative larval fish
  

Front 51

Elapomorpha overview

Back 51

• Bony tongued fish, tarpons and eels, evolved in the late Jurrasic
  
• Distinguished by their unique larval form; small with very small head and drift in the marinecurrents for long periods
  
• 35species of tarpons, lady fish, and bone fish
  
• Wellknown as game fish
  

Front 52

Clupeomorpha overview

Back 52

• 360 species of plankton feeders
  
• Specialized mouth and gill strainers for plankton feeding
  
• Mostly marine schooling fish
  
• Spinelessfins
  
• High economic importance with species such as herring, sardines, shad, anchovies
  

Front 53

Eu

Back 53

good or true

Front 54

Euteleosts examples

Back 54

• Primitive: Pike,Salmon
  
• Cod
  
• Angler
  
• Flying fish
  
• Killifish (live-bearers)
  

Front 55

Euteleosts overview

Back 55

• Some have hearing sensitivity enhanced by swim bladder connect to vertebrae
  
• Alarm substance in skin - Pheromonesreleased into water when skin is damaged produce a fright reaction in nearby members of their own species
  

Front 56

Euteleosts are considered predominant fish. What percentage of all fishes are Euteleosts?What percentage of freshwater fishes are Euteleosts?

Back 56

•30% of all fishes

• 80% of freshwater fishes

Front 57

Weberian apparatus

Back 57

small bones that connect inner ear with swim bladder

Front 58

What are Euteleostei 2 distinct characteristics?

Back 58

• Weberian apparatus
  
• presenceof flight or alarm system in skin
  

Front 59

How many species of eels are there?

Back 59

60

Front 60

eel ecology

Back 60

Mostly marine, but many freshwater as well

Front 61

What is the life history of NA and European eels?

Back 61

• Live in freshwater systems of NA for 10 to 12 years – after reaching sexual maturity migrate to ocean and the sargassumseas; mate and die
  
• Young larvae float in ocean currents until they hit continental shelf area and then begin to grow and move into freshwater systems and restart cycle
  
• European eels actually migrate to the same area, and drift back to the European area inthe open Atlantic, eggs hatch at a different depth interval which determineswhich current takes the larvae (drift period is much longer – up to 3 years)
  

Front 62

How many species of Ostariophysi?

Back 62

6300 species

Front 63

Ostariophysi examples

Back 63

• Catfish and minnows (carps and goldfish as well)
• Piranhas and familiar aquarium fish
  
• electric knife fish
• catfish
  

Front 64

What is the purpose of the catfish whiskers (barbels)

Back 64

taste& smell organ

Front 65

Protacanthopterygii examples

Back 65

• Trout
  
• salmon
  
• pike andrelatives
  
• Primitive group: esocids which include the pickerel, pike, and muskelunges in the northern hemsphere
  

Front 66

Protacanthopterygii ecology

Back 66

Temperate distribution in North and South America with a large economic importance asgame fish and food

Front 67

Stem Neoteleosts examples

Back 67

Lanternfish and relatives

Majority mesopelagic or bathypelagic

Front 68

mesopelagic

Back 68

• twilightzone but no photosynthesis
  
• Pertaining to the region of the oceanic zone from200 m to 1100 (or 150-2000) m
  
• a middle layer of the ocean between the epipelagic and bathypelagic layers
  
• Living or feeding at midwater at depths between 200 m and 1,000 m
  
• Generally characterized by dim light and steep temperature gradients.
  

Front 69

bathypelagic

Back 69

• Livingor feeding in open waters at depths between 1,000 and 4,000 m
  
• With respect to fish the term is used to include the depth range from 200 m to the bottom
• just above abyss, no sunlight, 39F, no plankton

Front 70

Anglerfish

Back 70

• Photophores, organs emit blue light (bioluminescent– symbiot of bacteria)
  
• Described as large mouths accompanied by a stomach
  
• Crazy life history: female density very low and sexratio is 30:1 (males to female). Males develop good smell and eyes and look for females, don’t feed, and attach as parasitic male (unknown among othervertebrates) odd but successful
  
• > 200 species
  

Front 71

Bathypelagic fishes characteristic

Back 71

• huge mouths – assists in eating ANY food that drifts down into their area of the ocean
  
• big eyes
  
• big stomach
  
• expandable bodies and guts
  

Front 72

Paracanthopterygii examples

Back 72

Cods and angler fish

Front 73

Paracanthopterygii ecology

Back 73

Northern hemisphere, marine and freshwater

Front 74

Acanthopterygii

Back 74

• spiny rayed fish
  
• Worldwide, primarily marine but Perciformes in this group as well (Perciformes=Perch)
  

Front 75

Sarcopterygii characteristics

Back 75

• Lobe-finned Fishes
  
• Fleshypaired fins
  
• Coveringof scales derived from dentine (cosmine)
  
• Cylindricalshape
  
• Heterocercal caudal fin
  
• Massivejaw muscles (compared to Actinopterygii)
  

Front 76

Sarcopterygii hallmark trait

Back 76

fin webs originate from elongated ms bases (on the coelacanths)

Front 77

Dipnoi

Back 77

Lungfishes

Front 78

Lungfish Characteristics

Back 78

• Lackarticulated tooth-bearing jaws,autostylic jaw suspension, Teethscattered over palate and fused into tooth ridges
  
• Durophagus– feed on hard foods
  
• Dorsal, caudal, anal fins fused into 1continuous fin - Caudalfin changed from heterocercal to homocercal
• Some larvae have external gills
  
• Adults have lungs
• Partially divided atria and ventricle

Front 79

Autostylic jaw

Back 79

fused jaw to cranium

Front 80

Lungfish sister lineage to ______________?

Back 80

tetrapods

Front 81

Lungfish ecology

Back 81

Live in Australia, S America, Africa

Front 82

hyostylic jaw

Back 82

upper jaw looses contact with chondrocranium

Front 83

_______________? havehyostylic jaws

Back 83

Elasmobrachs

Front 84

aestivation

Back 84

• induced by heat or drying instead of cold, sometimes called ‘summer sleep’
  
• Dig into sediments into a U-shapeand fold tail over eyes, secreted mucus forms dry protective covering, opening around mouth to permit breathing, metabolize muscle until it rains
  

Front 85

Durophagus

Back 85

feed on hard foods

Front 86

Actinistians

Back 86

coelacanths

Front 87

Coelacanths overview

Back 87

•Livein deep water – 260-300 m deep

•Hastapetum lucidum –enhances vision in dim light

•Rostral organ in snout – electroreceptor?

•Eats fish and squid

•Viviparous, but little known about reproduction

•2 extant Latimeria species

Front 88

Viviparous

Back 88

bringing forth live young that have developed inside the body of the parent

Front 89

Coelacanths- Thought to be extinct

Back 89

none found after Cretaceous until1938 – Indian Ocean

Front 90

What percentage of fish are Actinopterygii?

Back 90

96% of all fish

Front 91

All marine bony fish are derived from....?

Back 91

All marine bony fish are derived from freshwater fish, which have marine ancestors. (like whales and dolphins recolonized aquatic environments)

Front 92

Chondrichthyes and primitive bony fish have ________ caudal fin types.

Back 92

heterocercal

Front 93

Afish that is ________ to its environment will lose water by osmosis.

Back 93

hypotonic (marine)

Front 94

________is a reproductive mode with internal fertilization, young develop inside mother, but nourishment only comes from the yolk.

Back 94

Ovoviviparous

Front 95

Whatis the most diverse group of bony fishes?

Back 95

Teleost

Front 96

What adaptation(s) helps fish handle the downward pull of gravity?

Back 96

• Swimbladder – teleosts
  
• Pectoralfins and oily liver – sharks
  

Front 97

What adaptation(s) helps fish handle the drag of water?

Back 97

Fishbodies are a compromise between reducing two types of drag

Front 98

What are the two types of drag acting upon fishes?

Back 98

1. Viscous or Frictional Drag
   
2. Inertial Drag
   

Front 99

What is Viscous or Frictional Drag?

Back 99

• Drag from water moving over the surface
  
• Reducedby ¯ SA : Vol ratio and smoothness of body
  

Front 100

What is Inertial Drag?

Back 100

• Pressure differences created by the displacement of water
  
• Low at slow speeds but increases rapidly with speed
  
• Reduced by ¯ Vol: SA ratio
  
• (Inertial drag – water displaced, you jump in the bathtub and displace water)
  

Front 101

Fusiform shape

Back 101

Fusiform shape is a compromise- Reduces both types of drag

Front 102

What is the fusiform shape width-to-length ratio?

Back 102

All near 0.25 (Abouta quarter deep as it is long)

Front 103

Undulation forces

Back 103

• Backward force
  
• Lateral force (cancel each other)
  
• Overall force = forward
  

Front 104

Undulation

Back 104

Sequential contractions of musclesegments: anterior to posterior(oscillation side to side)

Front 105

Undulation types:

Back 105

1. Anguilliform
   
2. Carangiform
   
3. Ostraciiform
   

Front 106

Anguilliform

Back 106

• Lateral curvature in spine and musculature that moves in a posterior direction
  
• Start: lateral displacement just behind head, then passage of this displacement along the flexible body axis to the tail
  

Front 107

Carangiform

Back 107

• Last1/3 of body muscle mass is used to generate propulsion.
  
• Typically associated with highly laterally compressed fishes.
  
• Movement mostly in caudal region and some body bending.
  

Front 108

Ostraciiform

Back 108

• Fish even move fins to stay in place (hover)
  
• Gills closing create forward thrust, sculling of pectorial fins to counter
• Specialized, inflexible body- Fused scales form a rigid box around the body, preventing undulations
• Undulation limited to caudal fin

Front 109

Ostraciiform example

Back 109

Boxfish stalking prey, pufferfish

Front 110

Actinopterygian Reproduction

Back 110

• Morereproductive diversity than any other vertebrate
  
• Mostare oviparous
  
• Many specializations
  
• Some have “parental care” – attachment to substrate, guarding of eggs (in mouth, pouch), construction of nest
  

Front 111

What is the cost and benefit of parental care (biological tradeoff)?

Back 111

increases offspring survival by 4 times or more, but at a cost to the parent

Front 112

Discus reproduction

Back 112

like cichlids, brood care is highly developed and both parents care for the young, produce a mucus from the skin to feed the young for first few days of life

Front 113

cichlids reproduction

Back 113

Some egg laying fishes can brood eggs in mouth until hatch

Front 114

Actinopterygian Reproduction - Freshwater Teleosts

Back 114

• Usually small number of eggs that are yolk-rich Attachmentis important so don’t float away to unsuitable habitat
  
• Young are called “fry”
  
• (Attachment of eggs important in flowing water. Having a nest also is conducive for parental care and male often guards nestand sometimes the young **BUT NOT salmon**)
  

Front 115

Actinopterygian Reproduction - Marine Teleosts

Back 115

• Mosthave large numbers of eggs
  
• Planktonic eggs and larvae
  
• Usuallybuoyant and transparent
  
• External fertilization: drift in open sea
  
• Small larvae with little yolk supply (have to feed soon after hatching)
  

Front 116

Floating around in the open ocean might seem a risky strategy. Why take the risk? (Advantages for planktonic eggs and larvae)

Back 116

1. Fewer predators in open sea- Rapid dispersal of eggs andaway from some predators, but still very heavy
   
2. High biological productivity at surface- Enough food for young, less competitionfor adults
   
3. Better chances of colonization in largearea-Rather than highly variable conditions insmall area
   

Front 117

What percent of Teleosts have genetic sex determination? What are the rest are influenced by?

Back 117

88% of Teleostshave genetic sex determination, The rest are influenced by environment

Front 118

Protandry

Back 118

starts life as male and change to female. Finding Nemo. Largest is female, second largest is male, rest are sexually immature. (big female = more eggs); when the female dies, the largest male becomes the female

Front 119

Protogyny

Back 119

opposite of Nemo. Advantage is male holds territory over coral heads and mate with many females. Some non-dommales try to mate with females, but lower reproduction success than dom.

Front 120

Hermaphroditism

Back 120

• contains both sex organs
  
• mostly fertilize others and not self
  

Front 121

What species are entirely female?

Back 121

Gynogenesis

Front 122

Benthos

Back 122

where organisms associate with the sediment

Front 123

Ocean Life Zones overview

Back 123

• Food decreases with depth
  
• Fish diversity decreases with depth
  
• Greater diversity under high productivity regions (coasts)
  

Front 124

OceanLife Zones levels

Back 124

1. Epipelagic (0-100 m, photosynthesis limit)
   
2. Mesopelagic
   
3. Bathypelagic
   

Front 125

What percent of the ocean is dark?

Back 125

75%

Front 126

Greater deep-sea fish diversity is found where?

Back 126

in tropics (photosynthesis occurs year-round)

Front 127

Mesopelagic Fishes

Back 127

• Undertake diel vertical migrations (surface at night, depth during day).
  
• Largest migration in the world, daily
  

Front 128

Deep Scattering Layer

Back 128

• sonar reflections of fish and inverts that migrate vertically
  
• concentration of fish and zooplankton from vertical migration so dramatic that WWII navy ships using sonar thought this layer was a ‘false bottom’
  
• Sonar signals reflect of fish swimbladders and aggregations of them form the DSL
  

Front 129

Why do fish surface at night, and dive to depth during day?

Back 129

• High concentration of food at surface
  
• Stay in the dark to avoid being detected by predators
  

Front 130

Bathypelagic and Deep-Sea Fishes

Back 130

• Little (or no) vertical migration
  
• Less active: Less density of bone, Less skeletal muscle
  
• Efficient visual pigments for absorbing blue light
  

Front 131

Photophores

Back 131

organs that emit blue light; symbiotic bacteria Attract prey
Find mates

Front 132

Bioluminescence

Back 132

attract prey, find a mate or conspecific, communication, use it defensively (surprise a predator, smoke-screen) or defensively stun

Front 133

Surface fish example

Back 133

Herring

Front 134

Mesopelagic fish example

Back 134

Lanternfish

Front 135

Bathypelagic fish example

Back 135

Bristlemouth

Front 136

What is the result of Bathypelagic fish having fewer bones?

Back 136

Fewerbones = less movement

Front 137

Deep-Sea Fishes overview

Back 137

• Scent trails for attracting mates
  
• Large olfactory organs in males
  
• Some males attach like parasites
  
• Fertilized eggs rise to surface (upper 30m)
  
• Hatch, metamorphose, start descent
  

Front 138

Sexual parasitism

Back 138

• Number of males per female anglerfish depends on species
  
• Some species are Polyandrus with 7-8 males attached to a female and other species have only 1 male per female
  
• Other species of anglerfish don’t have parasitic males.
  

Front 139

Coral Reefs diversity

Back 139

• High diversity (600+ spp.) – due to isolation
  
• Periods of isolation
• huge diversity of closely-related species
  
• Day/Night shifts
  
• Lots of specialization in feeding
  

Front 140

How do coral reef fishes partition resources?

Back 140

Partition resources in

space (near reef, around reef)

in time (day vs night)

by food resources (suction feeding, long snout to get in cracks, munch on coral)

Front 141

Coral Reefs Threats

Back 141

Threats: corals grow very slowly

1. Climate change Coral bleaching – sign of severe coral stress

2. Pollution

3.Aquarium fish collection

4.Native/introduced predators

Front 142

Conservation of FreshwaterFishes

Back 142

Threat: Changesin habitat (diversion, pollution)

Freshwater declines from mod/destruct of habitat (dams, diversions) and water depletion (desert ground water pumping), pollution, disease like whirling disease from a parasite

Numbers: 800 native freshwater spp

61% freshwater fishes in US are extinct and 40% are endangered, threatened or of special concern

Front 143

Conservation of Marine Fishes

Back 143

Overfishing– many examples (Cod, haddock of NE)

Overfishing can effect ecosystems

Front 144

Name the three membrane layers of an amniote egg

Back 144

1. Chorion
   
2. Amnion
   
3. Allantois
   

Front 145

Chorion

Back 145

surrounds entire contents of the egg

Front 146

Amnion

Back 146

surrounds embryo

Front 147

Allantois

Back 147

storage of nitrogenous waste, respiration organ

Front 148

Casineria

Back 148

one of the first amniotes, 340 MYA

Front 149

Which appeared first amniotes or tetrapods?

Back 149

Amniotesappeared after the first tetrapods

Front 150

How do amniotes incubate their embryonic offspring?

Back 150

Allamniotes must lay eggs on land or retain in female track (viviparous)allows for larger offspring.

Relationshipbetween offspring sizeand survival is positive.

Front 151

What are the different demands on land than those encountered inwater?

Back 151

• Lessviscous
  
• Lessdense
  
• HigherO2 level
  
• Gravityhas greater effect on land
  

Front 152

What specific support challenges did species occur in terrestrial existence?

Back 152

• Increasein bone mass
  
• Changein overall structure of skeleton – limbs articulate with spine via girdles(pectoral, pelvic)
  

Front 153

Identify and describe the various bone layers of amniotes

Back 153

External: dense, Compact Bone

Internal: lighter, spongy – Cancellous Bone

Front 154

HaversianCanal

Back 154

Concentric layers of bone around blood vessels: typically run parallel to the surface andalong the long axis of the bone – depositsand storage of minerals = compact bone

Front 155

What are some advantages to having evolved joints?

Back 155

• Cancellousbone enclosed in joint capsule
  
• Synovial fluid (provides lubrication)
  
• Cartilage on ends (prevents friction)
  

Front 156

Zygapophyses

Back 156

articulating surfaces that resisttorsion (twisting) and compression (Similar to suspension bridge to support weight of viscera)

Front 157

Important changes in Tetrapod:

(KNOW THESE!!!)

Back 157

Snout length

Mode of reproduction

Neck, pectoral girdle free from head

Respiratory (lungs and trachea)

Vertebrae differentiation

Attachment pelvic girdle to column

Form of limbs

Arm bones/Phalanges form from rays

Epaxial and Hypaxial muscles

Presence of urinary bladder

Front 158

epaxial muscles

Back 158

• undifferentiatedin fish and early tetrapods, amniotes primarily used for posture
  
• single mass
  

Front 159

Name the Important (and new!) hypaxial muscles in Amniotes

Back 159

1. Transversus abdominus
   
2. Costal muscles
   
3. Rectus abdominus
   

Front 160

Transversus abdominus

Back 160

innerlayer. (Used in amphib for respiration)

Front 161

Costal muscles

Back 161

inhalationand exhalation (diaphragm in humans)

Front 162

Rectus abdominus

Back 162

mostly postural role (6 pack muscles)

new muscles seen in tetrapods, for postural,not lateral bending

Front 163

What are the different names of vertebrae sections of the spine, their location, and what are they responsible for?

Back 163

• Cervical: Up/downand side/side movement of neck (fishcould not move neck)
  
• Trunk: Thoracic(ribs), lumbar (lost ribs in mammals)
  
• Sacral: Fusedwith pelvic girdle
  
• Caudal: Tail
  

Front 164

Describe the development of the neck in tetrapods

Back 164

• Loss of opercular bone
  
• Pectoral girdle not connected to head
  
• Musclesused to control gill rakers became the muscles used to control headmovement
  

Front 165

What derived features did amniotes develop in order to walk on land?

Back 165

• Uprightposture – limbs under body
  
• Trot– distinct jump
  

Front 166

Why is living on land more energetically expensive than living in the water?

Back 166

• Friction between limbs and ground
  
• Primitive locomotion: (salamanders too)
  
• Axial flexion of body - uses trunk muscles, not limb muscles
  

Front 167

Which movement have we retained?

Back 167

primitive coupling of the limbs (rtfront and lftback) – swinging arms

Front 168

Isometric Scaling

Back 168

changes in size do not result in changes in proportion (1:1 ratio)

Front 169

Negative Allometry

Back 169

smaller as animal gets larger(e.g. metabolic rate, respiration)

Front 170

Positive Allometry

Back 170

larger as animal gets larger(e.g. skeletal mass)

Front 171

Scaling

Back 171

howthings change proportionately

Front 172

How do eyes scale?

Back 172

< 1:1 – small animals havebigger eyes in proportion to head/body (compare great dane to chihuahua)

Front 173

How do bones scale?

Back 173

> 1:1 – big animals have biggerbones in proportion to body

Front 174

Do animals change on an isometric scale?

Back 174

ANIMALSDO NOT CHANGE ON AN ISOMETRIC SCALE!!!

Front 175

Describe the sizeand the consequences of falling: elephants, dogs, mice, insects

Back 175

elephants:Distances= height of organism

dogs: Distance> height of the organism

mice: Noheight is enough to cause substantial injury

insects:Movementis with the movement of air

Front 176

What is the simple physics principle that guides gravity's relationship with various species?

Back 176

It’s simple physics: literally anddrastically, “thebigger they are, the harder they fall”

Front 177

Humansand chimps throw projectiles (rocks) and kick and hit, smaller animals (evendexterous ones do not). Why?

Back 177

Themomentum of a projectile (a measure of its destructive capability) is afunction of mass x velocity

• Possiblemass of the projectile ≈animal’s mass
  
• Possiblevelocity of the projectile ≈animal’s length
  
• Possible momentum of a projectile ≈animal’s length^4
  

Front 178

Why don't small animals use weapons?

Back 178

• Small animals can’t impart enoughmomentum to make a significant weapon
  
• Small animals need to stick tobiting, crushing, and squeezing.
  

Front 179

Describe mass specific metabolic rate:

Back 179

• If amouse consumed food at the same rate (relative to body mass) as a cow, it wouldneed fur 20 cm thick to stay warm (and stilts for legs!).
  
• If acow used fuel at the same rate as a mouse (relative to body mass) its bodytemperature would exceed the boiling point of water (and we would haveprecooked steaks).
  

Front 180

Metabolic rate is an example of what kind of allometry?

Back 180

Negative Allometry

Front 181

How does suction feeding work on land? In water?

Back 181

Land: Suction-feeding doesn’t work on land

Water: Aquaticanimals big and small use suction feeding tocapture food

Front 182

How do tetrapods eat?

Back 182

Tetrapodsuse jaws and teeth to seize and tongues and cheeks to manipulate

Front 183

What have tetrapods evolved to adapt to living on land? Examples?

Back 183

• Derived tetrapods have palate fused to braincase
  
• Alsohave tongue and hyoid apparatus
  
• Salivaryglands for swallowing
  
• Remember hyostylic jaw(moveable), now many tetrapods have a palate fused to braincase (crocs,mammals)
  
• Lizards have sticky tongue,salamanders and chameleons have projectile tongues
  

Front 184

Where does digestion begin?

Back 184

Digestionbegins in the mouth – saliva contains enzymes that begin chemical digestion

Front 185

In what species were lungs first seen?

Back 185

Lungsfirst seen in Dipnoi (lungfish)

Front 186

Dipnoi

Back 186

Lungfish (Maybe an adaptation for gas exchange in low Oxygen waters, but may be to fuel more energetic lifestyle)

Front 187

What is the biggest challenge for a terrestrial animal's circulatory system?

Back 187

gravity= Venous blood pumped “uphill”

Front 188

What circulatory adaptations have developed?

Back 188

1. Highblood pressure
   
2. Thick-walled muscular heart
   
3. Valves in veins – resist backflow
   
4. Separation of oxygenated (arterial) and deoxygenated (venous) blood(Double Circulatory System) – permanent ventricular septum
   

Front 189

arterial blood

Back 189

oxygenated

Front 190

venous blood

Back 190

deoxygenated

Front 191

Double Circulatory System

Back 191

Separation of oxygenated (arterial) and deoxygenated (venous) blood – permanent ventricular septum

Front 192

How did vision adapt to terrestrial life?

Back 192

• Easier than in waterCornea
  
• focuses light on retina
  
• Flatter lenses than fishes, change shape to focus
  

Front 193

Derived features in vision for terrestrial living:

Back 193

•Eyelids

• Glands that lubricate eye

• Nasolacrimal duct, moist

Front 194

How did hearing adapt to terrestrial life?

Back 194

• Sound channeledthrough inner ear

• Transmission of sound waves through chain ofbones in middle ear (sound amplifier)

• Organ of Corti– has hair cells thattransmit sound information to Central NervousSystem

Front 195

Organ of Corti

Back 195

has hair cells that transmit sound information to Central Nervous System

Front 196

Is it easier to see and hear in water or on land?

Back 196

On land

Front 197

What are pathways for water loss?

Back 197

1.Body surface

2.Respiratory system

3.Kidneys

Front 198

What are some adaptations for water conservation?

Back 198

•Tetrapodancestors = dermalscales, early tetrapods lost scales, retainedbelly scales

•Humanhave Outer layer composed of keratinized epidermal cells (keratin = insoluble protein+ lipids to reduce water loss)

Front 199

keratin

Back 199

insoluble protein + lipids to reduce water loss

Front 200

What derived urogenital ducts do tetrapods feature?

Back 200

bladder

Front 201

What derived urogenital ducts do tetrapods feature?

Back 201

ureter

Front 202

Ureter

Back 202

duct that drains kidney

Front 203

cloaca

Back 203

common opening for urinary, digestive, and reproductive tracts in most vertebrates

Front 204

Who has separateurogenital and digestive system openings that replaced the cloaca?

Back 204

Only marsupials and placentals

Front 205

Water has what kind of heat capacity?

Back 205

high heat capacity

Front 206

Terrestrial environment haswhat kind of temperature?

Back 206

Variable over space and time

Front 207

Describe the heat conductivity of air:

Back 207

Low heat conductivity

• animals can maintain temperature different than air
  

Front 208

Temperature

Back 208

ameasurement of the average kinetic energy of the molecules in an object orsystem and can be measured with a thermometer or a calorimeter. It is a meansof determining the internal energy contained within the system

Front 209

Warminternal temperature does what for the body?

Back 209

enzymeswork better at warmer temperature = bodies work better, move faster

Front 210

Poikilotherm

Back 210

variable heat

Front 211

Homeotherm

Back 211

same heat

Front 212

What is the problem with assigning the categories of Poikilotherm and Homeotherm?

Back 212

doesn’taccount for animals that don’t fall intothe 2 categories

Front 213

Ectotherm

Back 213

“outside heat” – reptiles, amphibians

Front 214

Endotherm

Back 214

“inside heat” – birds, mammals

Front 215

Why are Ectotherm and Endotherm more appropriate terms with which to categorize?

Back 215

referto SOURCES of heat used in thermoregulation, rather than changes in heat

Front 216

What are some examples of animals that use a combination of thermoregulation options?

Back 216

• Roadrunner
  
• Python
  
• Tuna
  

Front 217

Is Ecothermy “Bad”???

Back 217

•Effectivecontrol of body temperature

•Probablyancestral from of thermoregulation by early tetrapods

• Usedby nearly all non-amniotes andamniotes (except birds, mammals)
  

Front 218

Endotherms cannot typically be smaller than...

Back 218

2 grams

Front 219

Mechanismsfor Gaining or Losing Heat

(6)

Back 219

1.Solar Radiation

2.Thermal (infrared) radiation

3.Convection

4.Conduction

5.Evaporation

6.Metabolic heat production

Front 220

Convection

Back 220

transfer between animal and fluid –a cooling breeze (heat moves from warm to cool). Climb up in bush. (two thingsnot touching)

Front 221

Conduction

Back 221

transfer between animal andsubstrate – sitting on cold bleacher seats (two things touching)

Front 222

Body heat factors:

(6)

Back 222

1. metabolism
   
2. conduction
   
3. convection
   
4. radiation
   
5. evaporation
   
6. storage
   

Front 223

Prosand Cons of Ectothermy

Back 223

•Eatless (less energy expenditure, lesschance of predation)

•Livein places where endotherm can’t survive (aquatic environments)

Front 224

Pros and Cons of Endothermy

Back 224

• Livein cold climates and active at night
  
• HighEnergy cost and food requirements
  

Front 225

What was the first tetrapod?

Back 225

Acanthostega

Front 226

What are the four fossils we need to know that explainthe transition to terrestrial, tetrapods. (in order)

Back 226

• Ichthyostega
  
• Acanthostega
• Tiktaalik
• Panderichthys

Front 227

Temnospondyls

Back 227

closest lineage to modernamphibians.

Front 228

Panderichthys overview

Back 228

(Elpistostegidae) Most likelysister group of tetrapods

Front 229

Panderichthys characteristics

Back 229

•Eyeson top

•Noanal/dorsal fins, reduced tail fin

•Bodyand head – dorsoventrally flattened•Longsnout

•Derivedhumerus = powerfulforelimbs for propping

•Ventrally-projectingribs

Front 230

Do Panderichthys have gills? Operculum? Neck?

Back 230

Yes

Yes

No

Front 231

Tiktaalik overview

Back 231

• Late Devonian “Fishapod”
  
• Claimto fame: Filled gap between most derived Sarcopterygian and first tetrapod.
  
• Intermediatecharacters between fish and tetrapod
  

Front 232

Is Tiktaalik the first tetrapod?

Back 232

NO!!!! Filled gap between most derived Sarcopterygian and first tetrapod.

Front 233

What were Tiktaalik's fish-like features?

Back 233

•Finrays

•Well-developedgills

•Poorlyossified vertebrae

•Longbody

Front 234

What were Tiktaalik's tetrapod-like features?

Back 234

•Nooperculum

•Large,overlapping ribs – support body out of water

•Longsnout

•Pectoralfin with bend in middle – prop body up•Fingerlikebones at end of fin

Front 235

What were the EarliestTetrapods?

Back 235

1.Acanthostega

2. Icthyostega

Front 236

How has 'fish-tetrapod' transition has changedmany perceptions?

Back 236

Rather than envisaging a 'fish' crawlingout of the water, to evolve feet to walk on land, we now think that animalswith feet - 'tetrapods' - evolved their feet for uses inwater, and only later became land-going.

Front 237

Acanthostega characteristics

Back 237

“four-footedfish”

•Mostly aquatic – internal gills

•Radial fin rays supported tail

•Lateral line system

•Labyrinthodontteeth

•Intracranial joint

•Weight-bearing girdles

Front 238

Acanthostega and Ichthyostega: what are they (one word), and where (on Earth) are they from?

Back 238

Tetrapods from Greenland

Front 239

Acanthostega primitive features:

Back 239

• Fin-likeforelimb and hindlimb
  
• Operculum(internal gills)
  
• Weak zygapophyses
  
• Small ribs
  
• Non-bendable elbow
  
• Weak sacral connection
  
• Large tail fin
  

Front 240

Polydactyl

Back 240

mean more than 5 digits

Front 241

Ichthyostega

Back 241

• More specializations for bothaquatic AND terrestrial life
  
• Distinctthoracic and lumbar regions
  
• Longer, overlapping ribs (only thoracic)
  
• Elongated ribs at base of tail
  
• Hindlimb like seal flipper
  
• Ear region specialized for underwater hearing
  

Front 242

ZYGOPOPHYSES

Back 242

KEEPSTHE VERTEBRAE STRONG AND STRAIGHT

Front 243

OVERLAPPINGRIBS

Back 243

FIRSTADAPTATION HELPING TO BREATH WITH LUNGS/ PROTECTS LUNGS

Front 244

Earliest Tetrapod two main characteristics:

Back 244

1. Primarily aquatic

Presence of groove on ventral surface of gill arches suggests they hadinternal gills (HADGILLS!!!!!!)

2.Limb with digits

Pentadactyl development: teleost fins involves same genes as those involved in tetrapodlimbs

Front 245

How Does a Land Animal Evolve in Water?

Back 245

• Evolution is BLIND
  
• Characters don’tevolve because someday they may be useful in a certain environment.
  
• Must have evolved because of some advantage they provided while stillliving in water.
  

Front 246

Devonian period characteristics

Back 246

timeof seasonal droughts

dryseason – shrinking ponds

Front 247

Hypotheses for adapting to terrestrial living

Back 247

1.Searching for food

2.Juvenile dispersal

3.Laying eggs in moist environments

4.Basking in sun to raise body temperature = HELPS THE BODY WORKFATSER- ENZYMES WORK BETTER WHEN WARMER COULD HELP WITH DIGESTION, ETC.

Front 248

Aestivate

Back 248

spend a hot or dry period in a prolonged state of torpor or dormancy.

(LungfishesAestivate in mud until it rains)

Front 249

What adaptations to life in ashallow-water environment can be seen in anatomical changes – transition between fish and tetrapod:

Back 249

1.Limbs with digits

2.Development of ankles and wrists

3.Attachment of pelvic girdle tovertebral column

4.Development of a distinct neck(loss of opercular bones)

5.Articulation between skull andvertebral column

6.Longer, flatter snout

Front 250

The Frogfish

Back 250

• Livingfish that provides a model of tetrapod-like limb usefulness in water.
  
• Modifiedpectoral fin to walk over/push off substrate
  
• Related to Anglerfish
  

Front 251

Extantnon-amniotic tetrapods examples

Back 251

• frogs
  
• salamanders
  
• caecilians
  

Front 252

PrimitivePaleozoic tetrapods characteristics

Back 252

•Larger than living amphibians

•Many had dermal scales (no cutaneous gas exchange – breathing through the skin)

•More closely related to amniotesthan amphibians

Front 253

cutaneous gas exchange

Back 253

breathing through the skin

Front 254

Early Carboniferous Tetrapods split into what 2 lineages?

Back 254

1. Batrachomorphs
   
2. Reptilomorphs
   

Front 255

Batrachomorphs

Back 255

1) Temnospondyls (extinct)

(sister groups of amphibians)(non-amniotic tetrapods)

•Largestbody size

•Longest-lastinggroup

2) Amphibian (extant)

Front 256

Reptilomorphs

Back 256

1.non-amnioticrelatives

2.amniotes

• Synapsida

• Testudines

• Archausoromorpha

• Lepidosauromorpha

Front 257

Describe the structure of the AmnioticEgg

Back 257

1. Shell – leathery or calcified, mechanical protection, but porous toallow movement of respiratory gases,water vapor
   
2. Albumin – (egg white) protection, reservoir of water, protein
   
3. Large yolk – energy for the developing embryo
   

Front 258

Temnospondyls

Back 258

onlygroup of non-amniotic tetrapods (aside from amphibians) to survive thePaleozoic era

Front 259

Key events of radiation of Amniotes:

Back 259

Great diversification of insects in theLate Carboniferous (in response to increasing diversity of vegetation?)

Supporteddiverse fauna of fully terrestrial vertebrate predators

Front 260

What are the 4 Derived Features of Amniotes?

Back 260

1.Amniotic egg

2.Skin permeability:•Keratin•Lipids•Skin elaborations: hair, scales, feathers

3.Costal (rib) ventilation of lungs

4.More complex innervation of forelimb

Front 261

Foramens

Back 261

"Fenestra"

window (no. of holes in head)

Front 262

Anapsid

Back 262

primitive amniotes & turtles

NO Fenestration

Front 263

Synapsid

Back 263

mammals & ancestors

One temporal opening

Front 264

Diapsid

Back 264

reptiles, including birds

two temporal openings

Front 265

What is the Function of Foramens?

Back 265

• Amniotes– larger, more complex jaw muscles
  
• Provideroom for muscles to bulge
  

Front 266

What is the advantages of Foramens?

Back 266

•Feedingabilities

•Apply pressure with teeth when jaw closed

•Andeventually allow movements of jaws from side to side

Front 267

What does Lissamphibia mean?

Back 267

"Smooth Amphibia"

Tetrapods with moist, scaleless skin

Front 268

What are the three kinds of Lissamphibia?

Back 268

•Caecilians = legless burrowers

•Urodeles = salamanders

•Anurans (“without tails”) = frogs

Front 269

Lissamphibia overview:

Back 269

• 4legs, usually
  
• Adults are carnivores
  
• Aquatic forms have immobile tongues while theterrestrialtongues can protrude to catch prey
  
• Head size largely determines prey
  
• Swim sinusoidally like fish (except frogs)
  

Front 270

LissamphibiaGeneral Characteristics

Back 270

• 2-phase life history: Completemetamorphosis
  
• Most external fertilization, amplexus
  
• Most have aquatic eggs and larva,adults vary
  
• Many have some kind of parentalcare eggs, larva
• Theyhave cutaneousrespiration
• Terrestrialadults have lungs
• Aquaticlarvae and paedomorphicforms have gills
• Lungsemploy force pumps - they have no diaphragm

Front 271

All Lissamphibia are carnivores:

Back 271

• Tongueimmoveable in aquatic forms, extendible in terrestrial
  
• Sizeof prey determined by head size and sympatric species often have different headsizes
  

Front 272

SharedDerived Characters of Lissamphibians

Back 272

•Moist, permeable skin

•Papilla amphibiorum

•Operculum-columella complex

•Green rods

•Pedicellate teeth

•Levator bulbi muscle

Front 273

Hedonic glands

Back 273

pheromones

Front 274

how many types of glands are involved in cutaneous gas exchange?

Back 274

3 types of glands

Front 275

Mucus glands

Back 275

are essential, experimental lossresulted in loss of almost 30% of water in one day

Front 276

Papilla Amphibiorum

Back 276

• special sensory area in the innerear
  
• sensitive to frequencies <1000 hz
  

Front 277

Opercullum-columella Complex

Back 277

• Bonesinvolved in transmitting sounds to the inner ear.
  
• Transferringair waves into fluid waves and ground vibration into sound.
  

Front 278

Pedicellate Teeth

Back 278

• Crownand base (pedicel) composed of dentine and separated by narrow zone of uncalcified dentine or fibrous connective tissue.
  
• Ascrown wears, it breaks off and isreplaced by a new one.

Anuran

Urodela

Gymnophiona

Front 279

Cones & Rods in the eyes:

Back 279

• Cones= bright light and allow you to see color
  
• Rods = dim light, allow you to see movementand shape
  

Front 280

Lissamphibians specialized Green rods:

Back 280

• unique type of retinal cell
  
• caecilians lack but eyes are reduced
  
• good at seeing blue light (400 nmlow freq)
  
• mostly named for their appearance
  

Front 281

Structure of the levator bulbi muscle in Lissamphibians

Back 281

muscle in the floor of the orbitwhich causes eye to bulge outward

Front 282

OrdersofExtant Lissamphibia

Back 282

1. Caecilians (Gymnophiona)
   
2. Salamanders (Order: Caudata, extant spp.: Urodela)
   
3. Frogs (Anura)
   

Front 283

Caecilians (Gymnophiona)

Back 283

• nolimbs (extant forms)
  
• annulated bodies
  
• reduced or absent tails
  
• phallodeum
  
• internal fertilization
  
• scales

Front 284

Salamanders (Order: Caudata, extant spp.: Urodela)

Back 284

• elongatedbodies
  
• costal grooves
  
• reduced limbs
  
• frequent internal fertilization
  
• welldeveloped tails
  

Front 285

Frogs (Anura)

Back 285

• shortbodies
  
• reduced vertebrae (<9)
  
• relatively large heads
  
• elongated hind limbs
  
• anterior attachment of tongue
  
• noribs
  

Front 286

Caecilians (Gymnophiona) reproduction

Back 286

75%viviparous and first develop supported by yolk andthen supplied by mother’s uterine wall

Internalfertilization through an intromittentorgan that protudes fromthe cloaca

Front 287

matrotrophic

Back 287

a form of maternal care during organism development in which the embryo of an animal or flowering plant is supplied with additional nutrition from the mother (e.g. through a placenta).

Front 288

L12 - Lissamphibia

Back 288

slide 19