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74 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Charney and Weismann (1988)
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15% of people are affected by Major Depressive Disorder at some point in their life.
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Levav (1997)
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Prevalence rate to be above average in Jewish Males, and there is no difference in prevalence between Jewish men and Jewish women.
Suggests that some groups are more vulnerable to depression. |
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Nurnberger and Gershon (1982)
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Concordance rate for major depressive disorder was consistently higher for monozygotic twins than for dizygotic twins. (based off 7 studies)
65% for MZ twins 14% for DZ |
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Duenwald (2003)
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5 HTT Gene may be associated with a higher risk of depression.
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Catecholamine Hypothesis
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Depression is associated with low levels of noradrenaline.
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Serotonin Hypothesis?
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Serotonin is the neurotransmitter responsible for low levels of noradrenaline.
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Delgado and Moreno (2000)
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Abnormal levels of noradrenaline and serotonin in patients suffering from major depression.
However abnormal levels of these neurotransmitters might not cause depression but merely indicate that depression may influence the production of neurotransmitters. |
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Culture Bound Syndromes
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Conceptions of abnormality differ between cultures and this can have a significant influence on the validity of diagonsis of mental disorders. Though many disorders appear to be universal that is present in all cultures, some abnormalities or disorders are thought to be culturally specific.
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Marsella (2003)
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Depression takes a primarily affective (emotional) form in individualistic cultures. Whereas in collectivist cultures somatic (physiological) symptoms are more prevalent.
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Rosenhan 1973
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Reliability of psychiatric diagnosis
eight healthy people tried to gain admission to 12 different psychiatric hospitals. Not possible to distinguish between sane and insane in psychiatric hospitals. |
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Beck et al (1962)
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Found that agreement on diagnosis for 153 patients between two psychiatrists was only 54%
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Beck et al (1962)
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Found that agreement on diagnosis for 153 patients between two psychiatrists was only 54%
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Scheff (1966)
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Self fulfilling prophecy.
People may begin to act as they think they are expected to. They may internalize the role of mentally ill patient. |
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Scheff (1966)
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Self fulfilling prophecy.
People may begin to act as they think they are expected to. They may internalize the role of mentally ill patient. |
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Langer and Abelson (1974)
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Social Perception
Viewers were told beforehand that the man was a job applicant, he was judged positively whereas if they were told he was a patient, he was described negatively |
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Langer and Abelson (1974)
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Social Perception
Viewers were told beforehand that the man was a job applicant, he was judged positively whereas if they were told he was a patient, he was described negatively |
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ABCS
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Affective symptoms: emotional elements, including fear, sadness, anger
Behavioral symptoms: observational behaviors such as crying, physical withdrawal from others and pacing. Somatic symptoms: physical symptoms, including facial twitching, stomach cramping, and amenorrhoea that is the absence of menstruation. |
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ABCS
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Affective symptoms: emotional elements, including fear, sadness, anger
Behavioral symptoms: observational behaviors such as crying, physical withdrawal from others and pacing. Somatic symptoms: physical symptoms, including facial twitching, stomach cramping, and amenorrhoea that is the absence of menstruation. |
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Kleinmutz (1967)
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Limitations to the interview process:
Information exchange may be blocked if either the patient or the clinician fails to respect the other or if the other is not feeling well. Intense anxiety of preoccupation on the part of the patient may affect the process A clinician's unique style, degree of experience, and the theoretical orientation will definitely affect the interview. |
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Kleinmutz (1967)
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Limitations to the interview process:
Information exchange may be blocked if either the patient or the clinician fails to respect the other or if the other is not feeling well. Intense anxiety of preoccupation on the part of the patient may affect the process A clinician's unique style, degree of experience, and the theoretical orientation will definitely affect the interview. |
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Jahoda (1958)
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Six characteristics of mental health:
Efficient self perception Realistic self esteem and acceptance Voluntary control of behavior True perception of the world Sustaining relationships and giving affection Self direction and productivity SVERTS |
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Rosenhan and Seligman (1984)
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Suffering: does the person experience distress or discomfort?
Maladaptiveness: does the person engage in behaviors that make life difficult for him or her rather than being helpful? Irrationality: Is the person incomprehensible or unable to communicate in a reasonable manner? Unpredictability: does the person act in ways that are unexpected by himself or herself or by other people? Vividness and unconventionality: does the person experience things that are different from most people Observer Discomfort: is the person acting in a way that is difficult to watch or that makes other people embarassed? Violation of moral or ideal standards: does the person habitually break the accepted ethical and moral standards of the culture. SMIVOVU |
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Rampello et al (2000)
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Patients with major depressive disordres have an imbalance of several neurotransmitters including noradrenaline, serotonin, dopamine and acetylcholine.
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Lacasse and Leo (2005)
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Contemporary neuroscience research has failed to provide evidence that depression is caused by a simple neurotransmitter deficiency.
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Cortisol Hypothesis
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Cortisol is a major hormone of the stress system and high levels of cortisol show correlation to depression.
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Fernald and Gunnar (2008)
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Influence of poverty on children's mental health.
Study of 639 Mexican mothers and their children. Children of depressed mothers living in extreme poverty produced less cortisol, indicating a worn out stress system. This gave them a higher susceptibility to depression and autoimmune diseases (Multiple sclerosis etc) |
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Ellis (1962)
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Cognitive style theory.
Psychological disturbances often come from irrational and illogical thinking. On the basis of dubious evidence or faulty interferences about the meaning of an event, people draw false conclusions, which then leads to feelings of anger, anxiety or depression. I.e My work must be perfect My last essay did not receive the top grade Since I did not receive the top grade I am stupid. |
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Beck (1976)
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Theory of depression based on cognitive distortions and biases in information processing.
Stored schemas about the self interfere with information processing. Dark cognitive triad: Overgeneralization based on negative events Non logical inference about the self Dichotomous Thinking (black and white thinking) and selective recall of negative consequences |
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Alloy et al (1999)
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Sample of young americans in their twenties.
Thinking style was ascertained and they were placed into either positive or negative thinking groups. After six years those in the positive thinking groups exhibited 1% chance of depression while those in the negative exhibited 14%. |
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Brown and Harris (1978)
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Vulnerability model of depression based on a number of factors that could increase the likelihood of depression.
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Diathesis stress model
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INteractionist approach to explaining psychological disorders. Depression may be the result of heriditary predisposition with precipitating events in the environment.
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Prevalence of PTSD?
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1-3 percent and an estimated lifetime prevalence of 5 percent in men and 10% in women.
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Davidson et al (2007)
Breslau et al (1998) |
Estimate that PSTD affects 15-24% of individuals who are exposed to traumatic events.
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Likelihood of PSTD based on trauma?
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3% of personal attacks
20% of wounded veterans 50% of rape victims. 33% loss of a loved one. |
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Symptoms of Depression?
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Sad affect
Loss of enjoyment Anxiety Tension Lack of energy Loss of interest Inability to concentrate Ideas of insufficiency, inadequacy and worthlessness. |
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Symptoms of PSTD?
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Affective: anhedonia, emotional numbing
Behavioral: hypervigilance, passivity, nightmares, flashbacks, exaggerated startle response. Cognitive: intrusive memories, inability to concentrate, hyperarousal. Somatic: lower back pain, headaches, stomach ache and digetsion problems, insomnia, regression in some children, losing already acquired developmental skills such as speech or toilet training. |
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PTSD Rwandan Gencoide?
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Unique because survivors continued to exist in the communities and areas where the atrocities had taken place.
Children 8-19 years old 95% witnessed violence 80% had suffered a death in their immediate family 62% had been threatened with death. |
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Geltman and Stover (1997)
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Trauma occurs when a child cannot give meaning to dangerous experiences in the presence of overwhelming arousal.
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Dyregrov (2000)
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Extent of loss and trauma which affected all levels of society throughout Rwanda have rendered the traditional coping mechanisms and collective support less viable, and the whole adult community less receptive to children's needs, as adults coped with their own traumas and griefs.
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What factors promoted resiliency in the Rwandan genocide survivors?
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Availability of family and community resources
Distance from areas or communities which may expose them to stimuli which will recall intrusive memories |
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Geracioti (2001)
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PTSD patients had higher levels of noradrenaline than the average. IN addition stimulating the adrenal system in PTSD patients induced a panic attack in 70% of patients and flashbacks in 40% of patients.
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Bewin et al (1996)
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FLashbacks occur as a result of cue dependent memory, where stimuli similar to the original traumatic event may trigger sensory and emotional aspects of the memory, thus causing panic.
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Flooding?
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Over exposure to stressful events will cause the stress reactions to eventually fade out and therefore diminish the power of cue triggered intrusive memories.
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Sutker et al (1995)
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Gulf war veterans who had a sense of purpose and commitment to the military had less chance of suffering from PTSD.
Shows how development of PTSD is associated with a tendency to take personal responsibility for failures and to cope with stress by focusing on the emotion rather than the problem. |
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Suedfeld (2003)
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Holocaust survivors attributional patterns.
Attributional style of survivors was external. As a result made them less likely to develop PTSD |
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Silva (2000)
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Social Learning may play a role in development of PTSD>
Children may observe PTSD by observing domestic violence. |
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Kleinman (1987)
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Cultural regards for PTSD.
Non western survivors exhibit what are called body memory symptoms. I.e a woman experiencing dizziness due to her repeated experience of being forced to drink alcohol and being raped. (Hanscom 2001) |
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MUtlaq and Chaleby (1995)
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Several problems with group theory when applied to arab cltures. THese include strict gender roles, deferrence to members in the group based on age or tribal status and the misperception that the therapy session is simply another social activity.
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Rush et al (1977)
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Patients who are treated through drugs have a higher relapse rate as they don't learn the cognitive skills to effectively deal with their disorder.
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Cognitive restructuring?
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Identify negative, self critical thoughts that occur automatically
NOte the connection between negative thought and depression Examine each negative thought and decide whether it can be supported Replace distorted negative thoughts with realistic interpretations of each situation. |
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Six patterns of faulty thinking:
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Arbitary Inference: drawing wrong conclusions about oneself by making invalid conclusions
Selective abstraction: drawing conclusions by focusing a single part of the whole Overgeneralization: applying a single incident to all similar incidents Exaggeration: overestimating the significance of negative events Personalization: assuming that other's behavior is done with the intent of hurting or humiliating you Dichotomous thinking: an all or nothing approach to viewing the world. |
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Foa (1986)
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CBT for PTSD patients.
1) create a safe environment that shows that trauma cannot hurt them 2) show that remembering the trauma is not equivalent to experiencing it again 3) Show that anxiety is alleviated over time 4) acknowledge that experiencing PTSD symptoms does not lead to a loss of control. |
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Keane (1992)
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Patients may become initially worse in the early stages of CBT therapy and the therapists themselves may become upset when they hear about the patient's experiences.
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General Adaption syndrome
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Initial Stage: alarm stage (fight/flight)
Resistance Stage: coping along with attempts to reverse the effects of the alarm stage Exhaustion stage: reached after the individual has been repeatedly exposed to stressors and is incapable of further coping. |
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Transactional model of stress
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Lazarus
Primary appraisal: event is judged to be either irrelevant, positive or negative to one's well being. Secondary Appraisal: the different relevant coping strategies are considered before choosing a way to deal effectively with the stressor. |
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Kin Selection Theory
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Degree of altruism depends on the number of genes shared by individuals. The closer the relationship between the helper and those being helped, the greater the chance for altruistic behavior.
Supported by empirical studies on animals. |
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Reciprocal Altruism Theory
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Trivers (1971) the theory that it may benefit an animal to behave altruistically if there is an expectation that the favour will be returned in the future.
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Bateson and Darley (1973)
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The Good Samaritan study.
40% helped overall 63% of those were in a low hurry condition 45% were in the intermediate hurry condition and only 10% were in the hurry condition. Participants were likely to offer less help than those who were not in a hurry. |
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Pillavin (1969)
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How situational factors may influence helping behavior.
Various people pretended to fall over in a train and awaited response time for bystanders to help. 93% of the time someone helped spontaneously 60% of those cases more than one helper was involved The cane victim received help 100% of the time The drunk victim received help 81% of the time (with a median response time of 109 seconds) |
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Triangular theory of love (1988)
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Passion, intimacy and commitment work together to create a loving relationship.
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Winslow et al (1993)
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Prarie Voles
Suppression of vasopressin led to the lack of devotion/protective instincts to their mate. |
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Goodwin (1995)
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Passionate love is largely a western phenomenon. In the west marriage is seen as the culmination of a loving relationship. In cultures where arranged marriages occur, the relationship between love and marriage is the other way around.
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Matsumoto (00)
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The reason for this difference is quite clear. You Americans marry the person you love; we love the person we marry.
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Gupta and Singh (1992)
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Indian couples married for love reported diminished feelings of love if they had been married for more than five years. Those who had arranged marriages reported higher levels of love.
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Bradbury and Fincham (1990)
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Poor marital quality in a cuople predicted dispositional attributions to negative behaviors and situational attributions to positive behaviors.
The attributions a married couple makes toward each other influences their behavior. |
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Flora and Segrin (2003)
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The researchers found that negative feelings of women toward their partner predicted marital problems. For men it was merely their partners expressing negative feelings that predicted problems.
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Social Penetration Theory
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Altman and Taylor
Close relationships are formed by a gradual process of self disclosure. By sharing personal thoughts and feelings with another leads to self validation and as such leads to a deeper mutual understanding between two people. |
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Reis (1986)
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Women self disclose more than men. Women also disclose more to women than men do to other men
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Deborah Tannen (1990)
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Women are more likely than men to respond to someone's negative feelings with understanding and acceptance - to reassure that it is all right to feel bad, perhaps sharing an account of a time when they had similar feelings.
Men are more likely than women to take the initial disclosure as a complaint about a problem and to offer helpful advice on solving it. This leads to misunderstandings: a woman feels that a problem solving response belittles her feelings by failing to deal with them. |
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Social Exchange Theory
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(Kelley and Thibaut 1959)
Relationships are maintained through a cost benefit analysis. The costs of the relationship must not outweigh the benefits. The more one invests in a relationship the more one expects greater returns. A relationship will endure only as long as it is profitable for both partners in appropriate equivalent degree. |
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Equity Theory
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The perception of equality is what determines whether a relationship will be maintained.
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Hatfield (1979)
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In a study of 2000 couples Hatfield found that those who felt deprived or under benefitted had extramarital sex sooner after marriage and with more partners than those who felt either fairly treated or over benefited.
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Rusbult et al (1991)
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Patterns of accomodation.
Processes of responding to a partner's negative behavior are integral to the maintenance of relationships. Constructive accomodations include discussing problems openly and honestly, waiting for the situation to improve naturally and forgiving each other. Destructive accomodations include silent treatment, recounting lists of past failures and physical avoidance. |
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Murray and Holmes (1997)
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Idealization of one's partner seems to lead to constructive accomodations.
Those with positive illusions about their partner reported less conflict and fewer destructive patterns of conflict resolution. |
