Abnormal Exam 1 - Book

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psychosis

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A term that refers to several types of several mental disorder in which the person is out of contact with reality. hallucinations and delusions are examples of psychotic symptoms

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syndrome

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A group of symptoms that appear together and are assumed to represent a specific type of disorder

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incidence

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The number of new cases of a disorder that appear in a population during a specific period of time

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prevalence

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An epidemiological term that refers to the total number of cases that are present within a given population during a particular period of time

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comorbidity

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The simultaneous manifestation of more than one disorder

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psychiatry

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The branch of medicine that is concerned with the study and treatment of mental disorders

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clinical psychology

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The profession and academic discipline that is concerned with the application of psychological science to the assessment and treatment of mental disorders

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social work

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A profession whose primary concern is how human needs can be met within society

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case study

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A careful description and analysis of the problems experienced by one person

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paradigm

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A set of assumptions both about the substance of a theory and about how scientists should collect data and test theoretical propositions.

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biopsychosocial model

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A view of the etiology of mental disorders that assumes that disorders can best be understood in terms of the interaction of biological, psychological, and social systems

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psychoanalytic theory

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A paradigm for conceptualizing abnormal behavior cased on the concepts and writings of Freud. Highlights unconscious processes and conflicts causing abnormal behavior and emphasis psychoanalysis as the treatment of choice

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id

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One of freud's three central personality structures. The id is present at birth and is the source of basic drives and motivations, such as hunger (biological drive) and sex and aggression (key psychological drives)

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ego

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The ego much deal with reality as it attempts to fulfill id impulses as well as superego demands. The edu operates on the reality principle, and much of the ego resides in conscious awareness.

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superego

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Roughly equivalent to the "conscience" The superego contains societal standards of behavior, particularly rules that children learn from identifying with their parents. It attempts to control id impulses

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defense mechanisms

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Unconscious processes that service the eho and reduce conscious anxiety by distorting anxiety-producing memories, emotions, and impulses - for example, projection, displacement, and rationalization

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classical conditioning

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Pavlov's form of learning through association. A conditioned response eventually is elicited by a conditioned stimulus after repeated pairings with an unconditioned stimulus (with produces and unconditioned response)

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extinction

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The gradual elimination of a response when learning conditions change. In classical conditioning, extinction occurs when a conditioned stimulus no longer is paired with an unconditioned stimulus. In operant conditioning, extinction occurs when the contingent is removed between behavior and its consequences

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operant conditioning

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A learning theory asserting that behavior is a function of its consequences. Specifically, behavior increases if its rewarded and decreases if it is punished

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diathesis

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A predisposition to disorder, also known as vulnerability. A diathesis only causes abnormal behavior when it is combined with stress or a challenging experience

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stress

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An event that causes physiological or psychological strain for the individuals.

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risk factors

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A variable that is assc with a higher probability of developing a disorder

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reciprocal causality

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The concept of causality as bidirectional (or circular_. interaction is a process of mutual influence, not separate cause and effect

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developmental psychopathology

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An approach to abnormal psych that emphasizes the importance of normal behavior to understanding abnormal behavior

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premorbid history

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A pattern of behavior that precedes the onset of an illness. Adjustment prior to the disorder

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prognosis

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Predictions about the future course of a disorder with or without treatment

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evolutionary psychology

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The application of the principles of evolution to understanding the mind and behavior and identifying species-typical characteristics, that is, genetically influenced traits that people or animals share as a part of their nature. Evolutionary psychologists assume that animal and human psychology, like animal and human anatomy, have evolved and shared similarities

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temperament

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Characteristics styles of relating to the world that are often conceptualized as inborn traits. Generally emphasizing the "how" as opposed to the "what" of behavior

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emotions

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A state of arousal that is defined by the subjective feeling states, such as sadness, anger, and disgust. Emotions are often accompanied by physiological changes, such as in heart rate and respiration rate

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mood

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A pervasive and sustained emotional response that, in its extreme, can color the person's perception of the world

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modeling

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A social learning concept describing the process of learning through imitation.

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attributions

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perceived causes; people's beliefs about cause-effect relations

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identity

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Erikson's term for the broad defition of the self; in his view, identity is the product of the adolescent's struggle to answer the question "who am I?"

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diagnosis

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The process of determining the nature of a person's this disorder. In the case of psychopathology, deciding that a person fits into a particular diagnostic category

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categorical approach to classification

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A view of classification based on the assumption that there are qualitative differences between normal and abnormal behavior as well as between different forms of abnormal behavior.

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dimensional approach to classification

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A view of classification based on the assumption that behavior is distributed on a continuum from normal to abnormal. Also includes the assumption that differences between one type of behavior and another are qualitative rather than quantitative in nature.

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stigma

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A negative stamp of label that sets the person apart from others, connects the person to undesirable features, and leads others to reject the person

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culture-bound syndromes

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patterns of unusual or erratic thinking and behavior that have been identified in diverse societies around the world and do not fit easily into the other diagnostic categories that are listed in the DSM-IV-TR

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reliability

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consistency

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validity

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accuracy

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affect

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the pattern of observable behaviors, such as facial expression, that are associated with subjective feelings (emotions)

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euphoria

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elated mood; the opposite of depressed mood; characterized by exaggerated feelings of physical and emotional well-being

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episode specifiers

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specific description of symptoms present during the most recent episode of depression

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course specifiers

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descriptions of the pattern that the disorder follows over a course of time

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melanchonia

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episode specificer; severe depression; may have a good response to biological forms of treatment such as antidepressants and electroconvulsive therapy

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to be diagnosed with depression with melancholic features

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either
a. lose feeling of pleasure associated with all/almost all activities
b. lose the capacity to feel better - even temporarily - when something good happens
and 3/6
1. depressed mood feels different from that after someone dies
2. depression is worst in the morning
3. the person wakes up early, around 2 hours earlier than usual
4. psychomotor retardation or agitation
5. significant loss of appetite/weight loss
6. excessive or inappropriate guilt

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depression with psychotic features

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episode specifier; requires the presence of hallucinations or delusions during the most recent episode of depression or mania

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post-partum depression

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episode specifier; a woman must meet the full criteria for depression within four weeks after childbirth

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bipolar with rapid cycling

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episode specifier; a person experiences at least four episodes of major depression, mania, or hypomania within a 12 month period; likely to show poor response to treatment

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seasonal affective disorder

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when a person gets depressed in the winter/fall and recovers in the spring/summer, probably because of the fewer hours of sunlight during the winter; usually characterized by somatic symptoms, such as overeating, carb craving, weight gain, fatigue, and sleeping more than usual

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course + outcome of unipolar disorders

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people with unipolar disorders usually have their first episode in their 30s
most will have at least 2 episodes; the mean is 5-6
the longer you are in remission, the lower your risk for relapse

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relapse

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a return of active symptoms in a person who has not fully recovered from a previous episode; return of symptoms within 12 months

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remission

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a period of recovery

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recurrence

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occurs when a period has an episode of depression after being in remission for over a year.

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course + outcome of bipolar disorders

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average age of onset is 18-22
they don't really know about how many people recover, continue to show symptoms, etc.

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social factors/stressful life events + depression

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social factor
it seems that stressful life events will increase the probability of someone becoming depressed, particularly those stressful life events involving major losses or important people or roles. More specifically, depression is more likely to occur when severe life events are associated with feelings of humiliation, entrapment, and defeat.

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stress generation

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in comparison to people who are not depressed, depressed people generate higher levels of stress, especially in the context of interpersonal relationships

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social factors + bipolar disorders

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stressful life events usually precede a manic episode, but they include schedule-disrupting events or goal attainment events.

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psychological factors + depression

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depression is because of how people think about and interpret events - thinking about loss, failure, and disappointment. Includes assigning a global, personal meaning to failure; overgeneralize conclusions about the self based on negative experiences; drawing arbitrary inferences about the self in the absence of supporting evidence; tendency to selectively recall events with negative consequences

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ruminative style

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a response to feelings of depression characterized by turning inwards, contemplating the causes and implications of the sadness; people with this style tend to have longer, more severe episodes of depression (females)

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distracting style

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a response to feelings of depression characterized by diverting attention from unpleasant mood; men are more likely to employ this style

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depression + cognitive therapy

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emotional dysfunction is influenced by the negative ways in which people interpret events so cognitive therapy aims to replace self-defeating thoughts with more rational self-statements; effective in the treatment of nonpsychotic, unipolar depression

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depression + interpersonal therapy

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focuses on current relationships, esp those involving family members, and tries to help the patient improve relationships with other people by building communication and problem-solving skills

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depression + selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)

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most frequently used form of antidepressant medication; synthesized in labs bc of the role of serotonin in depression; they inhibit the reuptake of serotonin into the presyanptic nerve ending and thus promote neurotransmission in serotonin pathways by increasing the amount of serotonin in the synaptic cleft but they do not affect the reuptake of norepinephrine or dopamine.; they are easy to use with little side effects (most severe being sexual dysfunction and weight gain)

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depression + tricyclics (TCAs)

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use was very widespread in the 1950's until SSRIs came along; they're just as effective as SSRIs but with worse side effects (blurred vision, drop in blood pressure); they affect brain function by blocking the uptake of neurotransmitters, especially norepinephrine.

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depression + monamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)

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came around at the same time as TCAs but weren't used as much because it gives high blood pressure to people who eat cheese and chocolate (bc of tyramine) and because they thought it wasn't as effective as TCAs; now, we know they are effective but you just have to monitor what you eat

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depression + effectiveness of psychotherapy and medication

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both psychotherapy and medication are effective in treating people who suffer from unipolar depression, but recent evidence suggest that using both together often leads more quickly to a remission of symptoms than either form of treatment alone

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bipolar disorder + lithium

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lithium carbonate is effective in alleviating manic episodes and its usually the first choice in treating bipolar disorder; usually, bipolar patients who continue to take lithium between episodes are less likely to experience relapse; however it doesn't work on all patients - around 40% of people have no effect and usually these are people who have rapid cycling and also have problems with alcohol abuse; a lot of people stop taking it bc of its side effects (nausea, memory problems, weight gain, and impaired coordination)

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bipolar + anticonvulsant medications

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bipolar patients who don't respond to lithium are usually prescribed anticonvulsant meds and about 50% of people respond positively to it; it can reduce the frequency and severity of relapse and cal be used to treat acute manic episodes; probably more effective for patients with rapid cycling or with mixed episodes

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bipolar + psychotherapy

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medication is usually the main focus but new research says that therapy plus meds is more effective than just meds; cognitive therapy can help with patient's reactions to stressful life events and reservations about taking medication; interpersonal and social rhythm therapy helps to deal with events that cause manic episodes (such as stressful life events, disruptions in social rhythms, and failure to take meds) by monitor the interaction between symptoms and social interactions and by helping patients learn to live more orderly lives, esp with regard to sleep-wake cycles

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electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

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has been beneficial for patients with bipolar and unipolar disorders; usually administered in patient with 3 treatments a week for 2-7 weeks and patients are given a muscle relaxant before; electrodes are place on the side of the head or on the front and back of the head; how ECT works remains a mystery and some people are reluctant to use it bc it sometimes can cause memory loss; usually, it is reserved for patients with severe depression who have suicidal thoughts and have not responded positively to other types of therapy

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seasonal mood disorders + treatment

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bc a lot of times SAD comes as a result of shorter days, they suggest light therapy, which is usually just as effective as standard antidepressants; light therapy with psychotherapy is the most effective

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suicide

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the highest rates of suicide in the US are found among white males over the age of 50 who have been occupationally successful (and that success is threatened or lost); escape from psychological suffering is a significant motive in suicide; 50% of all suicide acts occur in the context of a mood disorder and 15-20% of all people with mood disorders will eventually kill themselves

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DSM-IV-TR + suicide classification

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the DSM lists suicidal ideation as a symptom of mood disorders, but doesn't look into different classifications of suicide

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Durkheim + suicide classification

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Durkheim argued that the rate of suicide within a group/society would increase if levels of social integration and regulation are either excessively low or excessively high (egoistic, altruistic, anomic, and falatistic suicide); problems with his classification include that different types of suicide overlap and a lot of times not everyone in an entire group commits suicide

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Durkheim + egoistic suicide

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low integration; people become detached from society and think that their existence is meaningless; common among people who are divorced; feelings of depression and apathy

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Durkheim + altruistic suicide

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high integration; rules of a social group dictate that a person much sacrifice his/her own life for the sake of others

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Durkheim + anomic suicide

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low regulation; when there is a breakdown in social order; explains the increased suicide rates after a political/economic crisis; feelings of anger, disappointment, and exasperation

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Durkheim + fatalistic suicide

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high regulation; when the circumstances a person lives under become unbearable; for example, slavery

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nonsuicidal self-injury

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deliberate harm to self without trying to end one's own life; listed in the DSM as a symptom of borderline personality disorder, but is common in people with substance use disorders, eating disorders, depression, and PTSD; used for self-punishment or to regulate intense, negative emotional states

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frequency of suicide

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10-12 out of 100,000 people complete suicide but many more attempt it. females are more likely to attempt suicide but males are more likely to actually complete it. for women, the risk of suicide increases steading until midlife then levels off but men continue to commit suicide into old age

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causes of suicide + psychological factors

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interpersonal-psychology theory; suicide is an attempt to escape from unbearable psychological pain; the desire to end one's life much be accompanied by the ability to enact lethal self-injury

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causes of suicide + biological factors

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reduced levels of serotonin, which may be related to poor impulse control and increased levels of violent and aggressive behavior, could have something to do with it because difficult in regulating serotonin systems has been found among people who attempted suicide

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causes of suicide + social factors

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religion/churches usually help providing emotional support, protecting a person from committing suicide; place with more gun control have reduced rates of suicide bc most people who attempt to commit suicide are ambivalent but will succeed in their suicide attempt if they use a gun; celebs also might influence people to kill themselves - suicide clusters

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treatment of suicidal people

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1. crisis centers and hotlines - probably don't really help with suicide but just with people who are in distress
2. psychotherapy - cognitive-behavioral therapy, psychoanalytic therapy, family therapy
3. medication - usually treat the disorder that suicide ideations accompany
4. involuntary hospitalization - safety; to prevent people from harming themselves

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Rumination

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A mode of responding to distress that involves repetitively and passively focusing on symptoms of distress and on the possible causes and consequences of these symptoms; Rumination does not lead to active problem solving to change circumstances surrounding these symptoms. Instead, people who are ruminating remain fixated on the problems and on their feelings about them without taking action.

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response styles theory

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rumination makes distress, particularly depression, last longer through several mechanisms
1. enhances the effects of depressed mood on thinking, making negative thoughts more common
2. interferes with effective problem solving by making the thinking more pessimistic and fatalistic
3. interferes with instrumental behavior, leading to more stressful circumstances
4. people who ruminate will eventually lose social support

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rumination + depression

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people who ruminate have responses to depressed mood that are self-focused, symptom-focused, and focused on the possible consequences and causes of one's mood.

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rumination + negative thinking

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rumination leads dysphoric or clinically depressed people to think more negatively about the past, present, and future; it's like a confirmation bias for everything negative; more likely to be more negative, self-critical, and have reduced self-confidence; more gloomy about the future and low expectations for positive events

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rumination + poor problem solving

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rumination makes people focus on their problems but it prevents them from solving problems because they think their problems are overwhelming and unsolvable; even if they come up with a solution, they won't implement it

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rumination + inhibition of instrumental behavior

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rumination takes away from people's motivation and initiative, maintaining depressive symptoms, and preventing them from participating in mood-alleviating activities

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rumination + reduction of social support

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ruminators reach out for social support but report more social friction and less emotional support from others, probably because they keep talking about the same problems and people get frustrated

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response styles theory + duration v. onset of depression

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it used to be that people who ruminate will have a longer episode of depression, but now it seems that rumination better predicts the onset of depression bc it kind of contributes to a person's "crossing the line" from being sad and dysphoric to major depression

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rumination + distraction as a solution

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engaging in a lot of distracting activities may not be the best thing to do because it doesn't fully put your attention to one thing and so you don't get relief. instead, it is suggest that you fully absorb yourself in one or two activities

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rumination + worry

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rumination and worry are significantly correlated with each other but worry tends to be future-orientted and rumination involves going over past events; the content of rumination often focuses on the very kind of core negative affect and concern that worry seems intended to avoid; worry is more control and less uncertainty and rumination is less control and more uncertainty