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138 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is respiration?
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exchange of gases between atmosphere, blood and cells
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What are the processes of respiration?
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pulmonary ventilation, external respiration, internal respiration, cellular respiration
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What is pulmonary ventilation?
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inhalation and exhalation of air between atmosphere and alveoli of lungs/mechanical (breathing)
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What is external respiration?
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exchange of gases between the alveoli of lungs and blood in pulmonary capillaries across respiratory membrane/pulmonary capillary blood gains O2 and loses CO2
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What is internal respiration?
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exchange of gases between blood in systemic capillaries and tissue cells
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What is cellular respiration
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metabolic reactions that consume O2 ad give off CO2
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What are the organs of the respiratory system?
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nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, alveoli/lungs
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Why do we breathe?
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cellular respiration uses O2 to catabolize glucose, fatty acids, amino acids and glycerol
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What are the major waste products of metabolism?
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CO2 and H2O
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What are the structural divisions of the respiratory system?
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upper respiratory system/lower respiratory system
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What structures are involved in the upper respiratory system?
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nose, pharynx and associated structures
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What structures are associated with the lower respiratory system?
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larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs
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What are the two functional divisions of the respiratory system?
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conducting zone/respiratory zone
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What does the conducting zone do and what structures are involved?
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conducts air to and from lungs, filters, warms, moistens air – nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and terminal bronchioles
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What does the respiratory zone and what structures is it made up of?
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main site of gas exchange – respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs and alveoli
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What are the functions of the nose?
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warms, moistens, filters air – olfactory receptors (in olfactory epithelium) – resonating chamber for speech sounds
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What are the functions of the pharynx?
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passageway for air and food, resonating chamber, houses tonsils
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Where does the pharynx start and stop?
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starts internal nares and ends at the cricoids cartilage of larynx
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What are the three anatomical regions of the pharynx?
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nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx
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What portion of the pharynx is the nasopharynx?
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upper portion (above the uvula)
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Is the nasopharynx for air/food/air and food?
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air
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How many and what openings are in the nasopharynx?
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4 openings, 2 internal nares, 2 eustachian tubes
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Where is the oropharynx?
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between epiglottis and uvula
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Is the oropharynx for air/food/air and food?
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air and food
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How many and what openings are in the oropharynx?
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1 opening from mouth
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Where is the laryngopharynx?
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below epiglottis
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Is the laryngopharynx for air/food/air and food?
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air and food
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The laryngopharynx connects to what?
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esophagus and trachea
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The larynx is also known as?
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voice box
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What is the larynx?
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short passageway connecting laryngopharynx with trachea
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How many pieces of cartilage is the larynx made up of?
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9
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What are the different pieces of cartilage that make up the larynx?
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thyroid cartilage, cricoids cartilage, Epiglottis, Arytenoids cartilage, corniculate cartilage, cuneiform cartilage
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The “adams apple” is what?
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thyroid cartilage
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Which is the only complete ring of cartilage around the trachea?
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cricoid cartilage
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Which two pieces of cartilage in the larynx are made up of hyaline cartilage?
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thyroid and cricoids
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The epiglottis is made up of what type of cartilage?
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elastic
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Which pieces of cartilage in the larynx come in pairs?
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arytenoids, corniculate, cuneiform
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What does the glottis consist of?
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a pair of folds of mucous membranes, vocal folds (true vocal cords), and rima glottidis
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What does the epiglottis do?
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closes off glottis during swallowing, prevents aspiration
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The glottis is part of what?
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the epiglottis/larynx
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Where does the trachea extend from?
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from larynx to superior border of T5
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What does the trachea divide into?
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right and left primary bronchi
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The trachea is made up of what?
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16-20 C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage
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The open part of the c-shaped rings of cartilage in the trachea faces what?
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the esophagus
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The c-shape of the hyaline cartilage found in the trachea is designed that way for what reason/s?
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allows for swallowing, rigid support
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Where is the Carina found?
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at the bifurcation from trachea into right and left primary bronchi
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Where does the cough reflex happen?
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carina
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From beginning to end describe the bronchial tree
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primary bronchi, secondary bronchi, tertiary bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles, respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveoli
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Which portions of the bronchial tree move air?
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primary bronchi, secondary bronchi, tertiary bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles
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Which portions of the bronchial tree are for gas exchange?
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respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveoli
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What encloses the lungs?
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double layered pleural membrane
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What are the two layers of the pleural membrane?
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parietal pleura, visceral pleura
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The parietal pleura…
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lines the wall of the thoracic cavity
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The visceral pleura…
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covers the lungs themselves
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Which layer of the pleura is sensitive to pain?
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parietal pleura
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What is the pleural cavity?
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the space between the pleura layers
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Pleural fluid serves what function/s?
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reduces friction, produces surface tension
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Where is the cardiac notch found?
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left lung
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Describe the physiology of respiration
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pulmonary ventilation – air moves into lungs when air pressure inside lungs is less than air pressure in atmosphere – diaphragm contracts (flattening) – air moves out of lungs when pressure inside lungs is greater than pressure in atmosphere (lungs recoil) – diaphragm relaxes
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What is the most important muscle of inhalation?
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diaphragm
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Is inhalation active or passive?
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active
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Which muscles contract in inhalation?
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external intercostals, diaphragm, accessory muscles
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What is Boyles law?
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size of container determines pressure – increase size, decrease pressure/decrease size, increase pressure
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What must happen in alveoli for air to flow into lungs?
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pressure must become less than atmosphere
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What is responsible for 75% of air entering lungs during normal quiet breathing?
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diaphragm
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What is responsible for 25% of air entering lungs during normal quiet breathing?
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external intercostals
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What muscles are involved in deep, forceful inhalation
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accessory muscles
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If the pressure in the lungs is greater than the atmosphere you are going to inhale/exhale?
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exhale
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Is exhalation active or passive?
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passive
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The diaphragm needs what to contract?
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ATP
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What muscles are involved in forceful exhalation?
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rectus abdominus and external/internal obliques
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What three factors affect rate of airflow and ease of pulmonary ventilation?
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surface tension of alveolar fluid, compliance, airway resistance
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What does alveolar fluid do?
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causes alveoli to assume smallest possible diameter but prevents collapse of alveoli at exhalation
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What does “compliance” mean?
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ease with which lungs and thorax can expand (elasticity and surface tension)
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What conditions affect airway resistance?
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COPD, asthma, emphysema
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What does Charles law state?
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that volume of gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature, thus when gas enters lungs under normal conditions, it expands due to increase in temperature, thus the lungs expand
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What does Dalton’s law state?
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each gas in a mixture of gases exerts in own pressure as if no other gases were present, each gas diffuses across a permeable membrane from the area where it’s partial pressure is greater to the area where its partial pressure is less, the greater the difference, the faster the rate of diffusion
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What does Henry’s law state?
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quantity of a gas that will dissolve in a liquid is proportional to the partial pressures of the gas and its solubility, higher partial pressure of a gas over a liquid and higher solubility, more of the gas will stay in solution, much more CO2 is dissolved in blood than O2 because CO2 is 24 times more soluble
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What is decompression sickness?
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when N2 dissolves into blood under extreme pressure of breathing tank and dissipates too quickly, creating bubbles in blood
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N2 under normal conditions has a very high/low solubility in blood?
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low
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Where does external respiration happen?
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in the lungs
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What happens during external expiration?
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gases are exchanged between alveoli and capillaries, deoxygenated blood is changed into oxygenated blood, carbon dioxide is removed from blood, oxygen given to blood
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What does external respiration depend on?
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partial pressure of oxygen in alveoli (it must be increased) – amount of surface area – diffusion distance – breathing rate
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Where does internal respiration happen?
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in the tissues
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What happens during internal respiration?
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gases exchanged between capillaries and cells
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At rest, how much oxygen diffuses into cells?
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25%
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What’s one of the reasons exercise is so important?
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increase amount of oxygen diffusion during exercise
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What percent of oxygen is dissolved in plasma?
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1.5%
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How is the rest of the oxygen transported that isn’t dissolved into the plasma – how much?
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98.5% bound to hemoglobin
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How many iron atoms in each heme?
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4
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Oxygen saturated hemoglobin is called what?
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oxyhemoglobin
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What is hypoxia?
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low levels of oxygen, deficiency at tissues
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What other factors affect the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen?
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acidity, partial pressure of CO2, temperature (if any of those things becomes too high, hemoglobin loses affinity for oxygen so more oxygen is dissolved to correct imbalance)
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Why do diabetics have an increased risk for retinopathy, diabetic foot ulcers, etc?
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There isn’t enough insulin to send glucose to the cells for cellular respiration, so glucose goes to the cells that DON’T need insulin, (don’t have insulin receptors), to bring glucose into them…which are the cells of the retina, kidney’s, and nerves.
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Where are the cells that do not need insulin receptors to bring in glucose?
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retina, kidney’s and nerve cells
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Diabetic neuropathy can lead to what?
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foot ulcers and lower extremity amputations
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What are the two reasons the body may not be able to make insulin, resulting in diabetes mellitus?
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autoimmune destruction of the pancreatic beta cells that produce insulin
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What % of the beta cells need to be destroyed before typical diabetes symptoms emerge?
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80%
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Which type of diabetes manifests in childhood?
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Type I
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Which type of diabetes is autoimmune?
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type I
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What’s the difference between endocrine and exocrine?
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exocrine are ducted, endocrine are ductless
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Which alters cellular activity - endocrine or exocrine?
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endocrine
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Endocrine glands secrete products into _____________, then diffuse into __________
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ECF/Blood
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Products from endocrine glands do what?
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circulate looking for receptors/specific
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What are the “true” endocrine glands?
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pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal and pineal glands
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What are the “tissue” glands (13)?
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hypothalamus, thymus, pancreas, ovaries, testes, kidneys, stomach, liver, small intestine, skin, heart, adipose tissue, placenta
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Hormones come from endocrine or exocrine?
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endocrine
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What is the relationship between the endocrine system and the nervous system?
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they work together to coordinate functions of all body systems. The endocrine system releases mediators (hormones) just like the nervous system (neurotransmitters).
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What delivers hormones to cells throughout the body?
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bloodstream
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Are hormones just hormones, or are some of them also neurotransmitters?
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yes, some of them are both
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What are the two major types of hormones?
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circulating and local
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What are the two subtypes of local hormones?
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paracrine and autocrine
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What’s the difference between circulating and local hormones?
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circulating circulate in blood throughout the body, act on distant targets – local hormones act locally
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What’s the difference between paracrine and autocrine hormones?
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paracrine act on neighboring cells – autocrine act on the cells that secreted them
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Is most hormonal regulation done by negative or positive feedback systems?
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negative
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Control of hormone secretion is regulated by
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neural, humoral, and other hormones
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What is humoral?
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chemical changes in the blood
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What are the isolated hormones controlled by neural?
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EPI/NE
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What are the hormones regulated by humoral?
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PTH, calcitriol, insulin, glucagon
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What are examples of hormones being controlled by other hormones?
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GnRH ->stimulates anterior pituitary to release FSH and LH ** LH stimulates testes to release testosterone
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What is a major link between the nervous and endocrine system?
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hypothalamus
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Hypophysis is what?
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pituitary gland
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Adenohypophysis is what?
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anterior pituitary
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Neurohypophysis is what?
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posterior pituitary
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Which portion of the pituitary is neural, and which is glandular?
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anterior is glandular, posterior is neural
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What is the relationship between the anterior pituitary gland and the hypothalamus?
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the hypothalamus secretes releasing and inhibiting hormones which stimulate the release of hormones from the anterior pituitary
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What makes the hypothalamic hormones?
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neurosecretory cells transported by hypophyseal portal system
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How many cell populations are there in the anterior pituitary?
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5
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What are the hormones of the anterior pituitary?(6)
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FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH, PRL, GH
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Does the posterior pituitary gland synthesize hormones?
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no
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The posterior pituitary stores and releases hormones made where?
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hypothalamus
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How are the hormones transported from the hypothalamus to the posterior pituitary?
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the hypothalamohypophyseal tract
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Which hormones are stored in the posterior pituitary?
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oxytocin, antidiuretic hormone
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What promotes synthesis/secretion of small protein hormones called IGF’s?
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hGH
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The pancreas is both an _____________ and a(n) ______________
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endocrine and exocrine gland
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What are the endocrine cells in the pancreas?
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pancreatic islets or islets of langerhans
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What are the exocrine cells of the pancreas called what do they secrete?
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acini cells/digestive enzymes
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Which type of diabetes represents 90-95% of all newly diagnosed cases of diabetes mellitus?
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Type II
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