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361 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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anatomy
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the science of body structures and their relationships among structures
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physiology
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the study of body functions- how the body parts work
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organization
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the complex hierarchical structure of the body
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metabolism
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the sum of all chemical reactions in the body. Metabolism is subsumed into two interrelated processes, anabolism and catabolism
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anabolism
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biochemical joining of small molecules to make larger ones
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catabolism
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biochemical break down of large molecules into smaller ones
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growth
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the enlargement in the size of an organism
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responsiveness
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the ability to sense and react to stimuli
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development (differentiation)
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the process whereby cells specialized for specific functioning
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anatomy
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the science of body structures and their relationships among structures
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physiology
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the study of body functions- how the body parts work
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regulation
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the ability to maintain a constant internal environment in the face of a changing external environment
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organization
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the complex hierarchical structure of the body
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metabolism
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the sum of all chemical reactions in the body. Metabolism is subsumed into two interrelated processes, anabolism and catabolism
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anabolism
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biochemical joining of small molecules to make larger ones
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catabolism
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biochemical break down of large molecules into smaller ones
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growth
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the enlargement in the size of an organism
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development (differentiation)
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the process whereby cells specialized for specific functioning
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responsiveness
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the ability to sense and react to stimuli
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regulation
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the ability to maintain a constant internal environment in the face of a changing external environment
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reproduction
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is a process that produces new cells for growth, maintenance and repair.
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chemical level
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the simplest level involving atoms and molecules
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cellular level
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consists of cells - the smallest living structures and the basic units of structure and function.
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tissue level
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comprised of groups of similar cells that collectively form common functions
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organ level
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organs, composed of two or more tissue types, that perform specific, complex functions.
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organ system level
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contains organs that work together to coordinate activities and achieve a common function
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organism
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highest level human structural organization, comprised of all of the organ systems working in an integrated functional manner
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anatomic position
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body stands upright. limbs at the side. palms facing anteriorly. feet held together but positioned in a 45- degree angle from one another.
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section
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an actual cut or slice to expose the internal anatomy
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plane
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an imaginary flat surface passing through the body
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coronal plane (frontal plane)
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divides the body into front and back parts
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transverse plane (horizontal plane)
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divides the body into top and bottom parts
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sagittal plane
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divides the body into right and left halves
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midsagittal plane (median plane)
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cuts through the midline of the body and divides it into equal right and left sections
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parasagittal plane
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divides the body into unequal right and left sections
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organ system level
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contains organs that work together to coordinate activities and achieve a common function
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oblique plane
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cut at an angle other than 90 degrees from the coronal, transverse, or sagittal planes
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anterior
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in front of; toward the front of the surface.
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posterior
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in back of; toward the back surface
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dorsal
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at the back side of the human body
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ventral
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at the belly side of the human body
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superior
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closer to the head
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inferior
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closer to the feet
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cranial
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at the head end
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caudal
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at the rear or tail end
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rostral
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toward the nose or mouth
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medial
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toward the midline of the body
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lateral
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away from the midline of the body
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deep
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on the inside, internal to another structure
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superficial
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on the ouside
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proximal
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closes to point of attachment to trunk
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abdominal
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region inferior to the chest and superior to the hip bones
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antebrachial
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forearm between elbow and wrist
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auricular
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ears
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axillary
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armpit
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brachial
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arm
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buccal
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cheek
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calcaneal
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heel of foot
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carpal
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wrist
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cephalic
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head
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cervical
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neck
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coxal
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hip
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cranial
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skull
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crural
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leg between knee and ankle
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deltoid
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shoulder
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digital
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fingers and toes
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dorsal
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back
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facial
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face
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femoral
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thigh
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fibular
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lateral aspect of the leg
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frontal
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forehead
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gluteal
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butt
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hallux
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great toe
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manus
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hand
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mental
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chin
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nasal
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nose
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occipital
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posterior aspect of the head
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olecranal
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posterior aspect of the elbow
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oral
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mouth
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orbital
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eye
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plaMAR
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palm
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patellar
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kneecap
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pectoral
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chest
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pelvic
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pelvis
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perineal
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diamond-shaped region between the legs that contains the anus and external reproductive organs
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pes
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foot
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plantar
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sole of the foot
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pollex
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thumb
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popliteal
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area posterior to the knee
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pubic
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anterior region of pelvis
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radial
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lateral aspect of forearm
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sacral
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posterior region between the hip bones
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scapular
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shoulder blade
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sternal
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anterior middle region of the thorax
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sural
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calf
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tarsal
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ankle, root of the foot
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thoracic
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chest or thorax
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inguinal
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groin
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lumbar
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relation to loins or lower part of back
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tibial
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medial aspect of leg
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ulnar
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medial aspect of leg
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ulnar
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medial aspect of the forearm
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umbilical
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navel
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vertebral
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spinal column
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cranial cavitity
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houses the brain
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vertebral cavity
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houses the spinal cord
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thoracic cavity
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contains mediastinum, pericardial, pleural cavity
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mediastinum cavity
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located in the median space in the thoracic cavity, contains heart, thymus, esophagus, trachea, and major blood vessels that connect to the heart
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pericardial
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located within the mediastinum, it encloses the heart
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pleural cavity
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located in the right and left sides of the thoracic cavity, surround the two lungs
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abdominopelvic cavity
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seperated from the thoracic cavity by the diaphragm and is divided into the abdominal cavity and pelvic cavity
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abdominal cavity
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superior to the hip bones, it contains most of the digestive organs along with the kidneys and most of the ureters
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pelvic cavity
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contains the distal part of the large intestine, the remainder of the ureter, bladder, and internal reproductive organs
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serous membranes
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lines ventral cavity
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parietal layer
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layer of serous membrane, lines the internal surface of the body wall
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visceral layer
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layer of serous membrane, covers the external surface of the organs in the cavity
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serous fluid
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secreted by serous membranes. serves as lubricant that prevents friction when organs rub against one another in the ventral cavities
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pericardium
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encloses the heart with a serious membrane, consists of two layers
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parietal pericardium
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outermost layer of the serious membrane that forms that sac around the heart
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misceral pericardium
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forms the heart's external surface
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percardial cavity
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potential space between the parietal and visceral pericardium of the heart
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pleura
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serous membrane which encases the lungs, also consists of two layers
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parietal pleura
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outer layer that surrounds the internal surface of the thoracic wall
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visceral pleura
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covers the external surface of the lungs
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peritoneum
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serous membrane that lines the abdominopelvic cavity. consists of two layers
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parietal peritoneum
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outermost layer of the serous membrane that lines the internal walls of the abdominopelvic cavity
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visceral peritoneum
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inner layer of the serious membrane covering the external surfaces of most of the abdominopelvic organs
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peritoneal cavity
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potential space between the visceral and parietal peritoneum, containing a lubrication fluid: serous fluid.
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receptor
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the body structure that detects change in a variable
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control center
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structure that interprets input from the receptor and initiates changes through the effector
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effector
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structure that brings about the change to alter the stimulus in order to bring the variable back into optinal homeostatic rage
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feedback loop
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a. stimulus is received by the receptor. b. receptor infomration is sent to the control center. c. control unit integrates the incoming input and dictates a change utilizing the effectors. d. the effectors receive inut from the control unit, effecting return of the body to homeostasis
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negative feedback
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maintains the variable within a normal range by moving the stimulus in the opposite direction
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positive feedback
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amplifies the stimulus in the same direction
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matter
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any substance that has mass and occupies space
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three states of matter
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solid, liquid and gas
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how many elements occur in living organisms in greater than trace amounts
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12
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ions
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atoms or groups of atoms with either a positive or negative charge.
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cation
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when an atom loses one or more electrons it becomes positive charged
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anion
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atom gains one or more electrons and it becomes negatively charged
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covalent bonds
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SHARING of electrons
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molecular formula
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represents the kinds and number of atoms in a molecule
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structural formula
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molecule is coplementary to its molecular formula and represents their arrangements with molecule
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isomers
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molecules composed of the same number and kind of elements but arranged differently in space
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electronegativity
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the relative attraction each atom has for electrons
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nonpolar moleules
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formed predominantly by covalent bonding between the same elements
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polar molecules
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formed by covalent bonding between different elements
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amphipathic
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molecules that are large enough to have a nonpolar side and a polar sde
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intermolecular attractions
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molecules that have weak chemical attractions to other molecules
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hydrogen bonding
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weak attraction between a partially positive hydrogen atom within a molecule and partially negative atom within another molecule
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Van Der Waals forces
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occurs when electrons orbiting the nucleus of an atom of a nonpolar molecule for a brief instant distrubted unequally, causing one portion of the atom to be slightly negative and one end slightly postive
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hydrophic interactions
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type of intermolecular attraction between nonpolar molecules when placed in water
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how many hydrogen bonds can be formed with water
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4 hydrogen bonds with adjacent water molecules
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functions of water
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transport, lubricant, cusion, excretion of wastes
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hydrophilic
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substance that can dissolve in water- ions and polar molecules
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electrolytes
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if the aqueous solutions conducts electricity
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hydrophopic
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substances that can not dissolve in water - nonpolar molecules
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cohesion
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attraction between water molecules
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adhesion
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attraction between water molecules and other substances
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hydronium ion
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when one water molecule gains an extra hydrogen ion H30+
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hydroxide ion
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when a water molecule loses a hydrogen ion OH-
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acid
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substance that ionizes in water, is an anion, and considered a proton donor
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base
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considered proton acceptor
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what is pH measured between
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0 and 14
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neutral pH
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7
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acidic pH
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below 7
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basic pH
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above 7
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buffer
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single substance or an associated group of substances that function to help prevent pH changes
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suspensions
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formed when a material that is larger that 100 nanometer particulate size is mixed with water. mixture does not remained mixed
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colloid
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mixture composed of protein within water, IE cytosol of cell
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solution
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homogenous mixture in which the particulate size of the substance is smaller than 1 nanometer. dissolves in water
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emulsion
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type of suspension composed specifically of water and a nonpolar liquid substance.
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molarity
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measure of number of moles per liter of solution
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molality
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the moles per kilogram of solvent
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mole
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the mass in grams that is equal to either the atomic mass of an element or the molecular mass of a compound
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6 general biological macromolecules
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C H O N P S
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polymers
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molecules that are made up of repeating subunites called monomers
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dehydration synthesis
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combines monomers to form polymers
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hydrolysis
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process that splits polymers into monomers by inserting a split water molecule into the polymer and breaking the covalent bond
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lipid characteristics
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do not form polymers, nonpolar and partialy insoluble in water
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lipid functions
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stored nutrients, components of cell membranes and hormones
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4 primary classes of lipids
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triglycerides (neutral fats) phospholipids, steroids, and eicosanoids
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triglycerides
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three fatty acids bonded together, most common form among living things
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function of triglyceride
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store energy, structural supports, cushioning, and insulation of the body
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phospholipid
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main component of cell membranes, amphipathic
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steroids
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composed predominantly of hydrocarbons arranged in a 4 multi ring structure
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eicosanoids
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modified 20-carbon fatty acids that are synthesized from arachidoinc fatty accids
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carbohydrate
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a monomer of carbohydrate is monosaccharide
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hexose sugars
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glucose, fructose, and galactose
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nucleic acids
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macromolecules that store and transfer genetic information
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nucleotide
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nitrogenous base, pentose sugar, phosphate group
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5 nitrogenous bases
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adenine, thymine, cytosine, uracil, guanine
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DNA
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double stranded nucleic acid, pentose sugar is deoxyribose CONTAINS NO URACIL
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RNA
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single stranded nucleic acid, pentose sugar is ribose. CONTAINS NO THYMINE
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proteins
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polymers composed of one or more linear strands of amino acids
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amino acid
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monomeric unit of protein
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dipeptide
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two amino acids bonded together into one molecule
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oligopeptide
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3 to 20 amino acids bonded together
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polypeptide
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21-199 amino acids bonded together
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protein
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200 or more amino acids
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nonpolar amino acids
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tend to group with other nonpolar amino acids by hydrophobic interactions
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polar amino acids
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form interactions with other polar molecules and water
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charged amino acids
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can either have a negative charge or a positive charge
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proline
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forms a ring that bends protein
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cysteine
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contains S, allowing it to form a disulfide covalent bond
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methionine
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first amino acid positioned when a protein is synthesized
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primary structure of amino acid
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linear sequence of amino acids in proteins
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secondary structure
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series of repeating patterns within the protein
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tertiary structure
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final three-dimensional shape exhibited by a completed polypeptide chain
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globular proteins
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fold into a compact, often nearly spherical shape such as enzymes, antibodies, and some hormones
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fibrous proteins
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extended linear molecules that are constituents of ligaments, tendons, and contractile proteins within muscle cells.
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quaternary structure
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present only in those proteins with two or more polypeptide chains
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4 main types of intermolecular and intramolecular interactions
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hydrophobic exclusion, hydrogen bonding, ionic bonding, and disulfide bonds
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denaturation
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wprotein is usually disturbed or terminated when its conformation is changed. usually with heat
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potential energy
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energy of position or stored energy
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kinetic energy
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energy of motion
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chemical energy
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energy stored in a molecules chemicle bonds. only form of potential energy
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3 important molecules in chemical energy storage
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triglycerides, glucose, ATP
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electrical energy
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movement of charged particles
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mechanical energy
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exhibited by motion of an object
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sound energy
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compression of molecules move in a solid, liquid or gas caused by a vibrating object
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radiant
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energy of electromagnetic waves traveling in the universe consisting of a spectrum of different forms based on variations in frequence and wavelength
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heat
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randomized kinetic energy measured by temperature not available to do work , most abundant form of energy in the universe
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1st law of thermodynamics
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energy can neither be created nor destroyed but i can be converted from one form to another
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2nd law of thermodynamics
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everytime energy is transformed from one form to another, some of that energy is converted to heat which is unusable
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metabolism
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all chemical reactions that occur in living organisms
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chemical reactions
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occurs when chemical bonds in an existing molecular structure are broken and new ones formed to produce a different structure
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chemical equation
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written summary of chemical structure changes
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reactants
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substances that are present prior to the start of a chemical reaction, usually written on the left side of the equation
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products
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substance that are formed by the chemical reaction they are generally written on the right side of the equation
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decomposition
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large molecules are broken down into smaller ones
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synthesis
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two or more atoms, ions or molecules are combined to form a larger chemical structure; existing chemical bonds are borken and new bonds are formed
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exchange reaction
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atoms, molecules, ions or electrons are exchanged between two chemical structures; has both decomposition and synthesis reactions
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redox reaction
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specific type of exchange reaction that involves the movement of electrons from one chemcail to another
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exergonic reaction
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gives off energy, has more energy at start of the chemical reaction than at the end
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endergonic reaction
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in order to proceed it must take in energy; it has less energy at the start of the reaction than at the end
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reaction rate
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measure of how quickly a chemical reaction takes place
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activation energy
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energy required to break existing chemical bonds
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enzyme
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biologically active catalyst- accelerates normal chemical activities by decreasing the activation energy
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active site
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active site accommodates the substrate of a reaction to temporarily form an enzyme substrate complex
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competitive inhibitor
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resembles the substrate and binds to the active site of the enzyme; thus giving competitiong to substrate for the active site resulting in a slow-down of the enzymatiaclly catalyzed chemical reaction
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noncompetitive inhibitor
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does not resemble a substrate; it binds to an alternate site on the enzyme known as the allosteric site
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plasma membrane
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external membrane
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microvilli and cilia
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external surface features of the plasma membrane
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nucleus
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consists of a nuclear envelope,
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cytoplasm
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all material contained within the plasma membrane excluding the nucleus
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cytosol
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cell's intracellular fluid
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organelles
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characterized by shape and function
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types of bound organelles
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endoplasmic reticulum, golgie apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes and mitochondria
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non membrane bound organelles
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ribosomes, cytoskepelton, centrosomes and proteasomes
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general cell functions
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mainting cell integrity and shape, acquiring nutrients, constructing chemical bonds, eliminating waste.
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lipid components
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make plasma membrane insoluble in water
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four functions of plasma membrane
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providing a physical barrier, selective permeability, conrolling electrochemical gradients, enabling communication
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primary function of phospholipid bilayer
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to ensure cytosol does not exit the cell
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integral proteins
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span across the width of the phospholipid bilayer
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peripheral proteins
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attached to both internal and external portions of the integral proteins.
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transport proteins
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regulate movement across the plasma membrane via channels, carriers, and pumps
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cell surface receptors
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bind ligands from one cell with plasma membrane receptrors of another
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identity markers
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aid the body's cells in identifying and communication with other cells of the body
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enzymes
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function as catalysts to the body's chemical reactions
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achoring sites
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the securing structures between the cytoskeleton and plasma membrane
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cell-adhesion proteins
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attach one cell to another
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aquaporins
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integral protein channels that allow water to cross the selectively permeable membrane
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osmotic pressure
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pressure generated from the amount of water moving across the plasma membrane via osmosis
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hydrostatic pressure
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pressure weilded by a fluid upon the internal walls of a container
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tonicity
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cell's volume and pressure changes based on osmosis
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hypotonic solution
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exists when cytosol is higher concentration of solutes than the interstitial fluid causes water to ENTER the cell
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hypertonic solution
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exists when the interstitial fluid has a higher concentration of solutes than the cytosol causes water to EXIT the cell
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crenation
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cell shrinkage caused by extreme concentration differences
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primary active transpor
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adds a phosphate group to a transport protein, changes proteins shape allows it to pass through
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electrochemical gradient
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charge difference between the nside and outsie of the cell and is based upon the amount of positively charged and negatively charged ions on ither side of the plasma membrane
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membrane potential
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the potential energy or electrical difference between the iside and outside of the cell
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resting membrane portential
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the portential energy a cell has at rest
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symport secondary active transpor
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occurs when "symporters" trnsport protiens move two substances in the same direction
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antiport secondary active ransport
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occurs when "antiporters" transport protein in two different directons
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vesicular transport
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process of transporting large substances across the plasma membrane via membrane-bouned sacs called vesicles
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exocytosis
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large substances inside the cell are transported by vesicals that will fuse with the plasma mebrane to excrete the substance
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endocytosis
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cell acquires external nutreints through external vesicular fusion with the plasma membrane
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3 types of endocytosis
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phagocytosis, pinocytosis, receptor mediated endocytosis
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phagocytosis
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the cell eats or consumes large external particles via "pseudopodia" external membrane extensions
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pinoctyosis
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cell drinks or consmes external droplets of interstitial fluid
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receptor-mediated endocytosis
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molecule specific plasma membrane protein receptors bind forming a ligand-receptor complex while simultaneously collecing those specific molecules within the membrane whereby they will eventually be invaginated and encapsulated inside an intracellular vesicle.
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immune system cells are able to identify normals cells from abnormal by
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glycogalyx
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ligands bind to which 3 sites
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channel-linked receptors, enzymatic receptors, g protein-coupled receptors
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channel-linked receptors
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allow the passage of ions in and out of the cell based upon neurotransmitter binding
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enzymatic receptos
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bind with th eligand to activate the process of phosphorylation
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g protein-coupled receptors
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bind with a ligand to activate and release a g protein which will bind to GTP than detach from the receptor and reattach to and activate an effector protein
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endoplasmic reticulum serves 6 purposes
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protein and lipid synthesis, carbohydrate metabolism, molecular transport via lumen, packaging and storage of new molecules, detoxification, formation of vesicles and peroxisomes
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golgi apparatus
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stack of saccules, to poles cis- and trans-
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lysosomes
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small sacs containing enzymes, assist in digestion
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autophgy
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lysosomes digest portions of damaged organelles
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autolysis
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damaged or dying cell digest te components inside itself
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peroxisomes
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formed by the rough ER, digest materials ingested by the cell, detoxify hazardous substances inside the cell by use of oxidative enzymes
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mitochondria
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double-stranded membrane bound organelles, digest organic molecules (glucose) generate ATP
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ribosomes
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composed of proteins and RNA
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vesicular transport
|
process of transporting large substances across the plasma membrane via membrane-bouned sacs called vesicles
|
|
|
exocytosis
|
large substances inside the cell are transported by vesicals that will fuse with the plasma mebrane to excrete the substance
|
|
|
endocytosis
|
cell acquires external nutreints through external vesicular fusion with the plasma membrane
|
|
|
3 types of endocytosis
|
phagocytosis, pinocytosis, receptor mediated endocytosis
|
|
|
phagocytosis
|
the cell eats or consumes large external particles via "pseudopodia" external membrane extensions
|
|
|
pinoctyosis
|
cell drinks or consmes external droplets of interstitial fluid
|
|
|
receptor-mediated endocytosis
|
molecule specific plasma membrane protein receptors bind forming a ligand-receptor complex while simultaneously collecing those specific molecules within the membrane whereby they will eventually be invaginated and encapsulated inside an intracellular vesicle.
|
|
|
immune system cells are able to identify normals cells from abnormal by
|
glycogalyx
|
|
|
ligands bind to which 3 sites
|
channel-linked receptors, enzymatic receptors, g protein-coupled receptors
|
|
|
channel-linked receptors
|
allow the passage of ions in and out of the cell based upon neurotransmitter binding
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bound ribosomes
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synthesize proteins for use outside of the cell or within lysosomes
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free ribosomes
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synthesize proteins that are to be used within the cell
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cytoskeleton
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structural support, chromosome seperation during cell division
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microfilaments
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approximately seven nanometers and particpate in cytokinesis
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intermediate filaments
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eight and twelve nanometers and made up of prtein components
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microtubules
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hollow, composed of the protein tubulin and approximately twenty-five nanometers
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centrosome
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located neart the nuclues, contains a pair of centrioles, arranges microtubules in a fashion that eventually forms a mitotic spindle in cell division
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proteasomes
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located in cytoplasm and nucleus, digest unnecessary, damaged proteins, moniter quality of exported proteins
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cilia
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found in large numbers located on the surface of specific cells, function to increase plasma membrane surface area
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flgella
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typically found alone on he outside surface of the cell, function to propell the cell
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microvilli
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membrane extensions that lack the ability to control their movement, increase plasma membrane surface area in effort o expedite molecul transportaion across the membrane
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tight junctions
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prevent intraculler cell leakage by attaching each cell to its neighboring cell via protins
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desmosomes
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connect cells together
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hemidesmosomes
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anchor the cell to the basement membrane
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gap junctions
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form within the intercellular space of neighboring ells and house fluid filled tunnels that act as passageways for substance transprot between cells
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nuclear envelope
|
outer layer of nucleus separating the nuceloplasm from the cytoplasm
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nuclear pores
|
passageways that allow for the moveent of large particles in and out of the nucleus
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nucleolus
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a non-membrane bound dark-staining body comprised of protein and RNA which produces ribosomes
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nucleotides
|
repeating monomers which make up DNA
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phosphodiester bonds
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link nucleotide monomers via phosphate groups
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complementary base pairing
|
adenine to thymine and cytosine to guanine
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culeosome
|
complex formed from histones or nuclear protins
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Chromatin
|
DNA along with its select proteins
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chromosones
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when chromtic is coiled
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genes
|
segments of DNA nucleotides that instruct and produce specific proteins
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transcription
|
process of reading, copying, and prudcing new RNA
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what is required for transriptions
|
ribonucleotides, RNA plymerase
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RNA polymerase
|
responsible for complementary base pairing
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initiation
|
first step of transcription, DNA template strand is created from copying a DNA coding strand
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elongation
|
RNA polymerase performs complementary base pairing of free of nucleotides with bases of the template DNA strand
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termination
|
terinal end of the gene is reached and RNA polymerase detaches from DNA creating mRNA which will serve to produce a select protein
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pre-mRNA
|
initial produced strand of mRNA including noncoding regions
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introns
|
non-coding regions in mRNA
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exoms
|
coding regions of DNA, spliced together to generate increased numbers of proteins
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capping
|
use of guanine occurs to the lead end of the mRNA to prevent nucleic acid digestion and strengthen the strand
|
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poly A tail
|
functions to produce multpile mature transcripts of mRNA
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translation
|
process by which mRNA is read, then converted resulting in the syntehsis of a protein
|
|
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codon
|
3 nucleotide base unites
|
|
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start codon
|
AUG
|
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stop codong
|
UAA, UAG, or UGA
|
|
|
three types of RNA participate in protein synthesis
|
rRNA- catalyzes protein synthesis. mRNA, tRNA- functions to introduce amino acids with mRNA codons
|
|
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initiation
|
first step to translation- movment of small ribosomal unite across mRNA to the start coodn at the P site
|
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elongaton
|
second step in translation delevier of all subsequent amino acids by specific tRNAS to form the protein
|
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termination
|
final step in translation- translation is ended once a stop codon enters the A site
|
|
|
two basic phases of cell cycle
|
interphase and mitotic phase
|
|
|
3 distinct phases of interphase
|
G1 phase, S phase, G2 phase
|
|
|
G1 phase
|
cells grow and produce new organelles, also form structures necessary for DNA replication
|
|
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S phase
|
DNA replication occurs, 46 double helix strands of DNA are replicated forming two identical sister chromatids, DNA replication involves unwinding of the DNA molecules
|
|
|
G2 phase
|
cell division enzymes are produced, centriole replicaiton is complete, organelle production continues
|
|
|
M phase 4 phases
|
prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase
|
|
|
prophase
|
chromatin coils, nucleolus break down, microtubules form from centrioles, centrioles migrate towards opposing cells, nuclear envelope breaks down
|
|
|
metaphase
|
microtubules attach to chromosomes centromeres, chromosomes align at the equatorial plate of the cell
|
|
|
anaphase
|
contromeres separate, sister chromatids separate and are pulled toward opposite ends of the cell, sytokinesis or the division of cytoplasm begins
|
|
|
telophase
|
chromosomes move to cellular poles and uncoil forming chromatin, nucleolus reforms in each nucleus, spindle fibers dissolve, nuclear enveloples form, cytokinesis continues as cleagave furrow deepens.
|
|
|
necrosis
|
cells die becuase they are killed by harmful agents
|
|
|
apoptosis
|
cells die induced to commit suidie
|
