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74 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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in classical conditioning, one of the stimuli that is chosen has two characteristics: the stimulus, such as a tone, must cause some reaction, such as being heard, seen, tasted, or smelled, but it must not elicit the unconditioned response. A stimulus with these two characteristics is called a |
neutral stimulus |
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in classical conditioning, a second stimulus is chosen that can elicit an unlearned, involuntary physiological reflex, such as salivation. this stimulus is called an |
unconditioned stimulus (UCS) |
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in classical conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus elicits an unlearned, involuntary physiological reflex, such as salivation, which is called the |
unconditioned response (UCR) |
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A typical trial in classical conditioning involves first presenting the (a) and then, a short time later, presenting the (b) . |
(a) neutral stimulus, (b) unconditioned stimulus (UCS) |
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on the very first conditioning trial, the neutral stimulus (tone) did not itself elicit the unconditioned response (salivation). However, on the first trial, the presentation of food, which is called the (a) , did elicit salivation, called the (b) . |
(a) unconditioned stimulus (UCS), (b) unconditioned response (UCR) |
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After a dozen trials that paired the tone with the food, you noticed that as soon as the tone was presented, the dog salivated. Because the tone itself elicited a response similar to that elicited by the unconditioned stimulus (food), the tone is called the (a) . the salivation elicited by the tone itself is called the (b) . |
(a) conditioned stimulus (CS), (b) conditioned response (CR) |
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during classical conditioning, there is a tendency for a stimulus similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response similar to the conditioned response. this tendency is called |
generalization |
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during classical conditioning, an organism learns to make a particular response to some stimuli but not to others; this phenomenon is called |
discrimination |
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if a conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus, there is a tendency for the conditioned stimulus to no longer elicit the conditioned response. this phenomenon is called |
extinction |
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the tendency for the conditioned response to reappear some time later, even though there are no further conditioning trials, is called |
spontaneous recovery |
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the kind of learning in which the cues (smell, taste, auditory, or visual) of a particular stimulus are associated with an unpleasant response, such as nausea or vomiting, is called (a) . this kind of learning can even occur after only a single (b) . |
(a) taste-aversion learning, (b) trial |
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According to Pavlov’s original explanation, classical conditioning occurs because of (a) , which means that the conditioned stimulus (tone) bonds to the unconditioned stimulus (food). through this bond, or association, the conditioned stimulus (tone) elicits the conditioned response (salivation) by substituting for the (b) (food). Pavlov’s explanation of classical conditioning was criticized, and researchers suggested instead that conditioning occurs because two stimuli are paired close together in time. this explanation, which is called (c) theory, has been challenged, in turn, by more recent explanations. |
(a) stimulus substitution, (b) unconditioned stimulus, (c) contiguity |
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the current and widely accepted explanation of classical conditioning, which is called the (a) perspective, states that animals and humans learn a predictable relationship between stimuli. According to this explanation, a dog learns predictable relationships, such as a tone predicting the occurrence of (b) |
(a) cognitive, (b) food |
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A relatively permanent change in behavior that involves specific stimuli and/or responses that change as a result of experience is a definition of________ . the change in behavior includes both unobservable mental events and observable behavioral responses. |
learning |
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Psychologists have identified three different principles that are the basis for three different kinds of learning. one kind of learning can be traced to Pavlov’s well-known experiment in which a bell was sounded and then food was placed in a dog’s mouth. After a number of trials in which the bell and food were presented, the dog began to salivate to the bell alone. Pavlov called this kind of learning a conditioned reflex, which today is called ___________. |
classical conditioning |
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A second kind of learning grew out of thorndike’s observations of cats learning to escape from a box. to explain a cat’s goal-directed behavior of hitting a latch to get food, thorndike formulated a principle of learning called the (a) ________. this law states that if certain random actions are followed by a pleasurable consequence or reward, such actions are strengthened and will likely occur in the future. today, the law of effect has become part of the second kind of learning that is called (b)_________ . |
(a) law of effect, (b) operant conditioning; |
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A third kind of learning involves mental processes, such as attention and memory; may be learned through observation or imitation; and may not involve any external rewards or require the person to perform any observable behaviors. this kind of learning is called __________. |
cognitive learning |
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suppose you wanted to classically condition your roommate to salivate at the sight of a psychology textbook. one procedure for establishing classical conditioning would be to present two stimuli close together in time. the presentation of the two stimuli is called a trial. in our example, a typical trial would involve first presenting a psychology textbook, initially called the (a) , which does not elicit salivation. A short time later, you would present a piece of brownie, called the (b) stimulus, which elicits salivation. salivation, an innate, automatic, and involuntary physiological reflex, is called the (c) . |
(a) neutral stimulus, (b) unconditioned stimulus, (c) unconditioned response |
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After giving your roommate about a dozen trials, you observe that, as soon as you show him the psychology text, he begins to salivate. Because the sight of the psychology textbook itself elicits salivation, the psychology text has become a (a) . the roommate’s salivation at the sight of the psychology book, presented alone, is called the (b) . You know that classical conditioning is established when the neutral stimulus becomes the (c) and elicits the (d) . Compared to the unconditioned response, the conditioned response is usually similar in appearance but smaller in amount or magnitude. |
(a) conditioned stimulus, (b) conditioned response, (c) conditioned stimulus, (d) unconditioned response |
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the more similar the new stimulus is to the original conditioned stimulus, the stronger or larger the conditioned response will usually be. during classical conditioning, there is a tendency for a stimulus similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response similar to the conditioned response. this tendency is called . |
generalization |
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during classical conditioning, an organism learns to make a particular response to some stimuli but not to others; this phenomenon is called . |
discrimination |
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if a conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus, there is a tendency for the conditioned stimulus to no longer elicit the conditioned response; this phenomenon is called (a) . However, if some time later you again presented the psychology text to your roommate without giving him a brownie, he would show salivation, the conditioned response. this recurrence of the conditioned response after it has been extinguished is called (b) . |
(a) extinction, (b) spontaneous recovery |
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After receiving an injection, people may develop fear or anxiety in the presence of stimuli associated with the treatment. if we feel fear or anxiety in the presence of some stimulus that precedes a painful or aversive event, we are experiencing a . |
conditioned emotional response |
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A powerful form of classical conditioning occurs in real life when a neutral stimulus is paired with an unpleasant response, such as nausea or vomiting. the result of this conditioning is called . this form of classical conditioning is unusual in two ways: it may be acquired in a single trial and may last a relatively long period of time; and there may be a considerable lapse of time between the presentations of the two stimuli. |
taste-aversion learning |
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We now know that animals and humans are biologically prepared to associate certain combinations of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli more easily than others. this phenomenon is called . |
preparedness |
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Classical conditioning of the eye blink reflex, which is a motor response, requires a brain structure called the (a) . Acquiring a classically conditioned emotional response, especially involving fear, involves a different brain structure called the (b) . |
(a) cerebellum, (b) amygdala |
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the occurrence of salivation in response to the thought, sight, or smell of food is helpful to digestion and shows that classical conditioning has an role or value. |
adaptive, or survival |
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According to Pavlov’s explanation, classical conditioning occurs because a neural bond or association forms between the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus so that the conditioned stimulus eventually substitutes for the unconditioned stimulus. Pavlov’s explanation is called . |
stimulus substitution |
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the explanation that says that classical conditioning occurs because two stimuli (the neutral and unconditioned stimuli) are paired close together in time is called the theory. However, researchers have shown that contiguity or simply pairing stimuli close together does not necessarily produce classical conditioning. |
contiguity |
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the explanation of classical conditioning that says that an organism learns a relationship between two stimuli such that the occurrence of one stimulus predicts the occurrence of the other is called the (a) . this theory is supported by the idea that classical conditioning is not usually learned if the unconditioned stimulus appears before the neutral stimulus, a procedure that is called (b) . |
(a) cognitive perspective, (b) backward conditioning |
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An emotional response, fear, was classically conditioned in little Albert by presenting a white rat, which was the (a) , and then making a loud noise, which was the (b) ; in turn, the loud noise elicited crying, which was the (c) . Albert’s conditioned emotional response, crying, also occurred in the presence of stimuli similar to the white rat, such as a rabbit; this phenomenon is called (d) . Albert did not cry at the sight of blocks or papers; this phenomenon is called (e) . Watson and Rayner were the first to demonstrate that (f) responses could be classically conditioned in humans. |
(a) neutral stimulus, (b) unconditioned stimulus, (c) unconditioned response, (d) generalization, (e) discrimination, (f) conditioned emotional; |
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An unfair, biased, or intolerant attitude toward another group of people is called (a) . in racial prejudice, negative emotional reactions, such as fear and anxiety, become (b) by individuals of another race who should be perceived as being (c) . |
(a) prejudice, (b) elicited, (c) neutral |
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during chemotherapy, 60–70% of the patients develop nausea in anticipation of, or when encountering stimuli associated with, the actual treatment. this type of nausea, which is called , cannot always be treated with drugs and may persist long after the chemotherapy ends. Researchers believe that conditioned nausea is learned through classical conditioning. |
anticipatory nausea |
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A nondrug treatment for conditioned nausea involves a procedure based on classical conditioning in which a person imagines or visualizes fearful or anxiety-evoking stimuli and then immediately uses deep (a) to decrease the anxiety associated with these stimuli. this procedure, which is called (b) , is a form of counterconditioning because it uses deep relaxation to replace or decrease the fear or anxiety with particular (c) that are arranged in a hierarchy. |
(a) relaxation, (b) systematic desensitization, (c) stimuli or situations |
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The kind of learning in which the consequences that follow some behavior increase or decrease the likelihood that the behavior will occur in the future is called . |
operant conditioning |
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In operant conditioning, the organism voluntarily performs or (a) a behavior. Immediately following an emitted behavior, the occurrence of a (b) increases the likelihood that the behavior will occur again. |
(a) emits, (b) reinforcement or reinforcer; |
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Because an organism may not immediately emit the desired behavior, a procedure is used to reinforce behaviors that lead to or approximate the final target behavior. This procedure is called . |
shaping; |
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In operant conditioning, the term consequences refers to either (a) , which increases the likelihood that a behavior will occur again, or (b) , which decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur again. |
(a) reinforcement, (b) punishment |
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If the occurrence of some response is increased because it is followed by a pleasant stimulus, the stimulus is called a (a) . An increase in the occurrence of some response because it is followed either by the removal of an unpleasant stimulus or by avoiding the stimulus is called (b) . |
(a) positive reinforcer, (b) negative reinforcement |
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A stimulus, such as food, water, or sex, that is innately satisfying and requires no learning to become pleasurable is a (a) . A stimulus, such as grades or praise, that has acquired its reinforcing power through experience and learning is a (b) . |
(a) primary reinforcer, (b) secondary reinforcer |
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The various ways that reinforcers occur after a behavior has been emitted are referred to as (a) of reinforcement. For example, if each and every target behavior is reinforced, it is called (b) reinforcement. If behaviors are not reinforced each time they occur, it is called (c) reinforcement. |
(a) schedules, (b) continuous, (c) partial; |
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When an organism emits the same response to similar stimuli, it is called (a) . When a response is emitted in the presence of a stimulus that is reinforced and not in the presence of unreinforced stimuli, it is called (b) A decrease in emitting a behavior because it is no longer reinforced is called (c) . If an organism performs a behavior again without its being reinforced, it is called (d) . |
(a) generalization, (b) discrimination, (c) extinction, (d) spontaneous recovery |
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A kind of learning that involves mental processes, that may be learned through observation and imitation, and that may not require any external rewards or the performance of any observable behaviors is referred to as . |
cognitive learning |
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Tolman studied the behavior of rats that were allowed to explore a maze without any reward given. When food was present, rats quickly learned to select the next shortest path if a previously taken path was blocked. Tolman said that rats had developed a mental representation of the layout, which he called a . |
cognitive map |
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Although an organism may learn a behavior through observation or exploration, the organism may not immediately demonstrate or perform the newly learned behavior. This phenomenon is known as the distinction. |
learning–performance |
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According to Bandura, one form of learning that develops through watching and imitation and that does not require the observer to perform any observable behavior or receive a reinforcer is called (a) learning. Bandura believes that humans gather much information from their (b) through social cognitive learning. |
(a) social cognitive, (b) environments |
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Bandura’s theory of social cognitive learning involves four mental processes. The observer must pay (a) to what the model says or does. The observer must then code the information and be able to retrieve it from (b) for use at a later time. The observer must be able to use the coded information to guide his or her (c) in performing and imitating the model’s behavior. Finally, the observer must be (d) to perform the behavior, which involves some reason, reinforcement, or incentive. |
(a) attention, (b) memory, (c) motor control, (d) motivated |
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In Köhler’s study of problem solving in chimps, he identified a mental process marked by the sudden occurrence of a solution, which he termed (a) . This phenomenon is another example of (b) learning. |
(a) insight, (b) cognitive |
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A kind of learning in which the consequences that follow some behavior increase or decrease the likelihood that the behavior will occur again is called . |
operant conditioning |
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To explain how random trial-and-error behaviors of cats became goal-directed behaviors, Thorndike formulated the , which says that behaviors are strengthened by positive consequences and weakened by negative consequences. |
law of effect |
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Skinner used the term operant (a) to describe something that can be modified by its consequences. Operant responses provide one way to separate ongoing behaviors into units that can be observed and measured. Skinner believed that Pavlov’s conditioning, which involves physiological (b) , was not very useful in understanding other forms of ongoing behaviors. |
(a) response, (b) reflexes |
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Suppose you wished to operantly condition your dog, Bingo, to sit up. The procedure would be as follows. You would give Bingo a treat, which is called a (a) , after he emits a desired behavior. Because it is unlikely that Bingo will initially sit up, you will use a procedure called (b) , which is a process of reinforcing those behaviors that lead up to or approximate the final desired behavior—sitting up. Immediately after Bingo emitted a desired behavior, you would give him a (c) . |
(a) reinforcer, (b) shaping, (c) reinforcer |
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Any behavior that increases in frequency because of an accidental pairing of a reinforcer and that behavior is called a behavior. |
superstitious |
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The essence of operant conditioning can be summed up as follows: Consequences or reinforcers are contingent on . |
behavior |
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If you compare classical and operant conditioning, you will find the following differences. In classical conditioning, the response is an involuntary (a) that is elicited by the (b) . In operant conditioning, the response is a voluntary (c) that is performed or (d) by the organism. In classical conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus is presented at the beginning of a trial and elicits the (e) . In operant conditioning, the organism emits a behavior that is immediately followed by a (f) . |
(a) reflex, (b) unconditioned stimulus, (c) behavior,(d) emitted, (e) unconditioned response, (f) reinforcer |
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In operant conditioning, the term consequences refers to what happens after the occurrence of a behavior. If a consequence increases the likelihood that a behavior will occur again, it is called a (a) . If a consequence decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur again, it is called a (b) . |
(a) reinforcer, (b) punishment |
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If a stimulus increases the chances that a response will occur again, that stimulus is called a (a) . If the removal of an aversive stimulus increases the chances that a response will occur again, that aversive stimulus is called a (b) . Both positive and negative reinforcements (c) the frequency of the response they follow. In contrast, punishment is a consequence that (d) the likelihood that a behavior will occur again. |
(a) positive reinforcer, (b) negative reinforcer, (c) increase, (d) decreases |
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The stimuli of food, water, and sex, which are innately satisfying and require no learning to become pleasurable, are called (a) . The stimuli of praise, money, and good grades have acquired their reinforcing properties through experience; these stimuli are called (b) . |
(a) primary reinforcers, (b) secondary reinforcers |
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A program or rule that determines how and when the occurrence of a response will be followed by a reinforcer is called a . |
schedule of reinforcement |
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If you received reinforcement every time you performed a good deed, you would be on a (a) schedule. This schedule is often used at the beginning of operant conditioning because it results in a rapid rate of learning. If your good deeds were not reinforced every time, you would be on a (b) schedule. This schedule is more effective in maintaining the target behavior in the long run. There are four kinds of partial reinforcement schedules. |
(a) continuous reinforcement, (b) partial reinforcement |
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The phenomenon in which an organism emits the same response to similar stimuli is called (a) . If a response is emitted in the presence of a reinforced stimulus but not in the presence of unreinforced stimuli, the organism is exhibiting (b) . If an organism’s response is no longer reinforced, it will stop emitting this behavior, which is an example of (c) . However, even without reinforcement, an organism may perform the behavior again, which is an example of (d) . |
(a) generalization, (b) discrimination, (c) extinction, (d) spontaneous recovery |
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The kind of learning that involves mental processes such as attention and memory, that may be learned through observation and imitation, and that may not involve any external rewards or require the person to perform any observable behaviors is called (a) . According to Tolman, rats developed a mental representation of the layout of their environment, which he called a (b) . |
(a) social cognitive learning, (b) cognitive map |
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If an observer learns a behavior through observation but does not immediately perform the behavior, this is an example of the distinction. |
learning–performance |
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During his studies of problem solving in chimpanzees, Köhler used the term to describe a mental process marked by the sudden occurrence of a solution. |
insight |
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Köhler’s study of insightful problem solving, Bandura’s theory of observational learning, and Tolman’s idea of cognitive maps represent three kinds of learning. |
cognitive |
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Innate tendencies or predispositions that may either facilitate or inhibit learning are referred to as . |
biological factors |
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The innate tendency of newborn birds to follow the first moving object that they encounter soon after birth is called (a) . This kind of learning occurs best during a critical or sensitive period and is essentially (b) . One function of imprinting is to form social attachments between members of a species. |
(a) imprinting, (b) irreversible |
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The innate tendency of animals to recognize, attend to, and store certain cues over others and to associate some combinations of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli is referred to as . An example of this tendency is observed in Clark’s nutcrackers, which are preprogrammed to bury and remember thousands of hidden stores of food. |
preparedness, or prepared learning |
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Verbal bullying, ostracizing peers, and spreading rumors are all examples of . |
relational aggression |
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Female university students who viewed either physical or relational aggression were to subsequently engage in physical and relational aggression than women who did not view any aggression. |
more likely |
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Suzuki’s method and Bandura’s theory both emphasize observation, modeling, and imitation. Specifically, both Suzuki and Bandura focus on four concepts: paying (a)to the model, placing the information in (b) , using the information to (c) the model’s actions, and having (d) to perform the behavior. |
(a) attention, (b) memory, (c) imitate, (d) motivation |
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Using principles of operant conditioning to change human behavior is referred to as . |
behavior modification |
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The systematic reinforcement of desired behaviors along with the withholding of reinforcement or punishment of undesired behaviors is called . |
contingency management |
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If an aversive stimulus is presented immediately after a particular response, the response will be suppressed; this procedure is called (a) . If a reinforcing stimulus is removed immediately after a particular response, the response will be suppressed; this procedure is called (b) . |
(a) positive punishment, (b) negative punishment |
